Paragraphs are the basic building blocks of academic writing. Well-structured
paragraphs help the reader understand the topic more easily by dividing up the
argument into convenient sections. This unit looks at:
• the components of paragraphs
• the way the components are linked together
• the linkage between paragraphs in the overall text
Paragraph structure
Discuss the following questions with a partner.
• What is a paragraph?
• What is the normal length of a paragraph?
• Is there a standard structure for paragraphs?
• How is a paragraph linked together?
2 Example paragraph
Study the paragraph below. It is from the introduction to an essay titled ‘Should home
ownership be encouraged?’
The rate of home ownership varies widely across the developed world.
Germany, for instance, has one of the lowest rates, at 42 per cent, while in
Spain it is twice as high, 85 per cent. Both the USA and Britain have similar
rates of about 70 per cent. The reasons for this variation appear to be more
cultural and historic than economic, since high rates are found in both rich and
poorer countries. There appears to be no conclusive link between national
prosperity and the number of home owners.
This paragraph can be analysed:
1 Topic sentence The rate of home ownership varies widely across the developed
world.
2 Example 1 Germany, for instance, has one of the lowest rates, at 42 per cent,
while in Spain it is twice as high, 85 per cent.
3 Example 2 Both the USA and Britain have similar rates of about 70 per cent.
4 Reason The reasons for this variation appear to be more cultural and
historic than economic, since high rates are found in both rich and
poorer countries.
5 Summary There appears to be no conclusive link between national prosperity
and the number of home owners.
This example shows that:
(a) A paragraph is a group of sentences that deal with a single topic. Dividing up the text
into paragraphs helps both writer and reader to follow the argument more clearly.
(b) The length of paragraphs varies significantly according to text type, but should normally
be no less than four or five sentences.
(c) Usually (but not always), the first sentence introduces the topic. Other sentences may give
definitions, examples, extra information, reasons, restatements and summaries.
(d) The parts of the paragraph are linked together by the phrases and conjunctions shown in
bold. They guide the reader through the arguments presented.
Development of ideas
(a) The sentences below form the third paragraph of the same essay, but they have
been mixed up. Use the table on p. 70 to put them in the correct order.
(i) When this burst, millions of people lost their homes, which for many had contained
their savings.
(ii) These mortgages had been developed to allow higher-risk poorer families to buy
their own homes, but this contributed to a property price bubble.
(iii) Many economists now argue that there is a maximum level of home ownership
which should not be exceeded.
(iv) All these claims were challenged by the economic crash of 2008, which was largely
caused by defaults on American sub-prime mortgages.
(v) Even households that had positive equity still felt poorer and reduced their
spending.
(vi) Others were trapped in their houses by negative equity, in other words their houses
were worth less than they had paid for them.

Introducing paragraphs and linking them together
In order to begin a new topic, you may use phrases such as:
Turning to the issue of . . .
Rates of infection must also be examined . . .
. . . is another area for consideration.
Paragraphs can also be introduced with adverbs:
Traditionally, few examples were . . .
Finally, the performance of . . .
Currently, there is little evidence of . . .
Originally, most families were . . .
In the example paragraphs above, each new paragraph begins with a phrase that links it to the
previous paragraph, in order to maintain continuity of argument:
Despite this (i.e. the lack of a conclusive link)
All these claims (i.e. arguments in favour of home ownership)

An effective introduction explains the purpose and scope of the paper to the reader.
The conclusion should provide a clear answer to any question asked in the title, as
well as summarising the main points. In coursework, both introductions and
conclusions are normally written after the main body
1 Introduction contents
Introductions are usually no more than about 10 per cent of the total length of the assignment.
Therefore, in a 2,000-word essay, the introduction would be about 200 words.
(a) What is normally found in an essay introduction? Look at the list below, and
choose the points you think might be included.
Introductions
and Conclusions
UNIT
1.11
An effective introduction explains the purpose and scope of the paper to the reader.
The conclusion should provide a clear answer to any question asked in the title, as
well as summarising the main points. In coursework, both introductions and
conclusions are normally written after the main body.

Introduction structure
Not every introduction will include all the elements chosen above.
Decide which are essential and which are optional.
There is no standard pattern for an introduction, since much depends on the type of research
you are conducting and the length of your work, but this is a common structure:
1.11: Introductions and Conclusions 73

(f) You cannot deal with every aspect of this topic in an essay, so you must make clear the
boundaries of your study:
Clearly, a study of this type is inevitably restricted by various constraints, notably the size
of the student sample, and this was limited to students of Pharmacy and Agriculture.
(g) Understanding the structure of your work will help the reader to follow your argument:
The paper is structured as follows. The first section presents an analysis of the relevant
research, focusing on the current limited knowledge regarding the student experience. The
second part presents the methodology of the survey and an analysis of the findings, and
the final section considers the implications of the results for the delivery of e-learning
programmes.
3 Opening sentences
It can be difficult to start writing an essay, but especially in exams, hesitation will waste valuable
time. The first few sentences should be general but not vague, to help the reader focus on the
topic. They often have the following pattern:
76 Part 1: The Writing Process

It is important to avoid opening sentences that are over general and vague.
Compare:
Nowadays, there is a lot of competition among different news providers. 7
Newspapers are currently facing strong competition from rival news
providers such as the Internet and television. 3
Write introductory sentences for three of the following titles.
(a) How important is it for companies to have women as senior managers?
(b) Are there any technological solutions to global warming?
(c) What can be done to reduce infant mortality in developing countries?
(d) Compare the urbanisation process in two contrasting countries.
 See Unit 2.8 Generalisations
4 Conclusions
Conclusions tend to be shorter and more varied in format than introductions. Some articles
may have a ‘summary’ or ‘concluding remarks’. But student papers should generally have a
final section that summarises the arguments and makes it clear to the reader that the original
question has been answered.
(A) Which of the following are generally acceptable in conclusions?
(a) A statement showing how your aim has been achieved.
(b) A discussion of the implications of your research.

(c) Some new information on the topic not mentioned before.
(d) A short review of the main points of your study.
(e) Some suggestions for further research.
(f) The limitations of your study.
(g) Comparison with the results of similar studies.
(h) A quotation that appears to sum up your work.