Summarising and paraphrasing are normally used together in essay writing.
Summarising aims to reduce information to a suitable length, allowing the writer to
condense lengthy sources into a concise form, while paraphrasing means changing
the wording of a text so that it is significantly different from the original source,
without changing the meaning. Both are needed to avoid the risk of plagiarism, and
this unit practises them separately and jointly
1 What makes a good summary?
Summarising is a common activity in everyday life. It is used to describe the main features of
the subject.
Write a short description of one of the topics below in no more than 20 words.
(a) A book you have enjoyed
(b) A town or city you know well
(c) A film you have recently watched
 

2 Stages of summarising
Summarising is a flexible tool. You can use it to give a one-sentence outline of an article, or
to provide much more detail, depending on your needs. Generally, a summary focuses on the
main ideas and excludes examples or supporting information. In every case, the same basic
steps need to be followed in order to meet the criteria discussed in (1) on p. 42.
Study the stages of summary writing below, which have been mixed up. Put them in
the correct order (1–5).
(a) Write the summary from your notes, reorganising the structure if needed.
(b) Make notes of the key points, paraphrasing where possible.
(c) Read the original text carefully and check any new or difficult vocabulary.
(d) Mark the key points by underlining or highlighting.
(e) Check the summary to ensure it is accurate and nothing important has been
changed or lost.
Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing and summarising are normally used together in essay writing, but while
summarising aims to reduce information to a suitable length, paraphrasing attempts to restate
the relevant information. For example, the following sentence:
There has been much debate about the reasons for the Industrial Revolution happening in
eighteenth-century Britain, rather than in France or Germany.
could be paraphrased:
Why the Industrial Revolution occurred in Britain in the eighteenth century, instead of on
the continent, has been the subject of considerable discussion.
Note that an effective paraphrase usually:
• has a different structure to the original
• has mainly different vocabulary
• retains the same meaning
• keeps some phrases from the original that are in common use (e.g. ‘Industrial Revolution’
or ‘eighteenth century’)
Techniques for paraphrasing
(a) Changing vocabulary by using synonyms:
argues > claims/eighteenth century > 1700s/wages > labour costs/economise > saving
(b) Changing word class:
explanation (n.) > explain (v.)/mechanical (adj.) > mechanise (v.)/profitable (adj.) >
profitability (n.)
(c) Changing word order:
. . . the best explanation for the British location of the Industrial Revolution is found by studying
demand factors.
> A focus on demand may help explain the UK origin of the Industrial Revolution.
Note that in practice, all these three techniques are used at the same time. Do not attempt
to paraphrase every word, since some have no true synonym (e.g. demand, economy).
Academic work depends on the research and ideas of others, so it is vital to show
which sources you have used in your work, in an acceptable manner. This unit
explains:
• the format of in-text citation
• the main reference systems
• the use of quotations
• the layout of lists of references
Why use references?
There are three principal reasons for providing references and citations:
(a) To show that you have read some of the authorities on the subject, which will give added
weight to your writing.
(b) To allow readers to find the source, if they wish to examine the topic in more detail.
(c) To avoid plagiarism.
2 Citations and references
It is important to refer correctly to the work of other writers that you have used. You may
present these sources as a summary/paraphrase, as a quotation, or use both. In each case, a
citation is included to provide a link to the list of references at the end of your paper:
Smith (2009) argues that the popularity of the Sports Utility Vehicle (SUV) is irrational, as
despite their high cost most are never driven off-road. In his view, ‘they are bad for road safety,
the environment and road congestion’ (Smith, 2009: 37)
Reference verbs
Summaries and quotations are usually introduced by a reference verb:
Smith (2009) argues that . . .
Janovic (1972) claimed that . . .
These verbs can be either in the present or the past tense. Normally, the use of the present
tense suggests that the source is recent and still valid, while the past indicates that the source
is older and may be out of date, but there are no hard-and-fast rules. In some disciplines, an
older source may still be useful.
Reference systems
There are several main systems of referencing employed in the academic world, each used by
different subjects. Your teachers will normally give you guidelines, or you may find these on
the library website. With any system, the most important point is to be consistent (i.e. to use
the same font size, punctuation, etc. throughout). These are the principal systems:
(a) The Harvard system, generally used for the social sciences and business, illustrated in
(2) on p. 53.
(b) The Vancouver system, widely used in medicine and science. Numbers in brackets are
inserted after the citation and these link to a numbered list of references:
Jasanoff (5) makes the point that the risk of cross-infection is growing
The footnote/endnote system, commonly used in the humanities, in which sources are
listed at the bottom of the page or at the end of the paper. The numbers in superscript
run consecutively throughout the paper:
The effects of the French Revolution were felt throughout Europe.3
The footnote/endnote system, commonly used in the humanities, in which sources are
listed at the bottom of the page or at the end of the paper. The numbers in superscript
run consecutively throughout the paper:
The effects of the French Revolution were felt throughout Europe.3
The footnote/endnote system, commonly used in the humanities, in which sources are
listed at the bottom of the page or at the end of the paper. The numbers in superscript
run consecutively throughout the paper:
The effects of the French Revolution were felt throughout Europe.3
The footnote/endnote system, commonly used in the humanities, in which sources are
listed at the bottom of the page or at the end of the paper. The numbers in superscript
run consecutively throughout the paper:
The effects of the French Revolution were felt throughout Europe.3
 

Using quotations
Discuss with a partner the reasons for using quotations in your written work.
Using a quotation means bringing the original words of a writer into your work. Quotations
are effective in some situations, but must not be overused (e.g. to pad out your work) They
can be valuable:
• when the original words express an idea in a distinctive way
• when the original is more concise than your summary could be
• when the original version is well known
All quotations should be introduced by a phrase that shows the source, and also explains how
this quotation fits into your argument:
1.8: References and Quotations 55

(a) Short quotations (2–3 lines) are shown by single quotation marks. Quotations inside
quotations (nested quotations) use double quotation marks:
As James remarked: ‘Martin’s concept of “internal space” requires close analysis.’
(b) Longer quotations are either indented (given a wider margin) and/or printed in smaller
type. In this case, quotation marks are not needed.
(c) Page numbers should be given after the date.
(d) Care must be taken to ensure that quotations are the exact words of the original. If it is
necessary to delete some words that are irrelevant, use points (. . .) to show where the
missing section was:
‘Few inventions . . . have been as significant as the mobile phone.’
(e) It may be necessary to insert a word or phrase into the quotation to clarify a point. This
can be done by using square brackets:
‘modern ideas [of freedom] differ radically from those of the ancient world . . .’

Compare the following:
(a) Summary
Hoffman (2012) points out that the main market for mobile phones is now the developing
world, and stresses the critical importance of mobile phones for the growth of small
businesses there.
(b) Quotation
According to Hoffman, mobile phone ownership compensates for the weaknesses of
infrastructure in the developing world: ‘In the poorest countries, with weak transport
networks and unreliable postal services, access to telecommunications is a vital tool for
starting or developing a business, since it provides access to wider markets’ (2012: 87).
(c) Summary and quotation
Hoffman points out that most of the growth in mobile phone ownership now takes place
in the developing world, where it has become crucial for establishing a business: ‘. . . access
to telecommunications is a vital tool for starting or developing a business, since it provides
access to wider markets’ (2012: 87).