Topic: Theoretical Understanding of Digital and Social Media
Table of Contents:
 What is Digital and social media. (Definition, Imp)
 What is theoretical understanding and theoretical framework?
 What is Social Network theory? Its Imp in terms of social media?
 Social Information Processing Theory (SIP).
 Violent Media Content and Effects (Social learning theory)  Impact of Digital media.  Impact of social media marketing today.  Digital Divide. And Gender digital divide.  Theories of the Press – Journalistic theories.
 Authoritarian theory
 Libertarian theory
 Social responsibility Theory  Soviet communist theory
 What is Media Psychology?
 Media Effects Theories.
 Powerfull effect paradigm OR 1st phase, OR Magic bullet theory
 Challenges to the Direct Effects Theory.
 Limited effect phase
 Mediate effect phase
 Pahse of negotiate meaning
 MARSHALL MCLUHAN’S INFLUENCE ON MEDIA STUDIES.
 Agenda setting
 Spiral of Silence
 Cultivation analysis
Digital Media:
Definition: Digital can be defined as any data represented with a series of digits, and Media refers to a method of broadcasting or communicating information. Together, digital media refers to any information that is broadcast to us through a screen.[1] This includes text, audio, video, and graphics that is transmitted over the internet, for viewing on the internet. Examples: Digital media include software, digital images, digital video, video games, web pages and websites, social media, digital data and databases, digital audio such as MP3, electronic documents and electronic books. Importance: Digital media has had a significantly broad and complex impact on society and culture. Combined with the Internet and personal computing, digital media has caused disruptive innovation in publishing, journalism, public relations, entertainment, education, commerce and politics. Digital media has also posed new challenges to copyright and intellectual property laws, fostering an open content movement in which content creators voluntarily give up some or all of their legal rights to their work. The ubiquity of digital media and its effects on society suggest that we are at the start of a new era in industrial history, called the Information Age, perhaps leading to a paperless society in which all media are produced and consumed on computers. However, challenges to a digital transition remain, including outdated copyright laws, censorship, the digital divide, and the spectre of a digital dark age.
Social Media: Social media are interactive computer-mediated technologies that facilitate the creation or sharing of information, ideas, career interests, and other forms of expression via virtual communities and networks.
What is theoretical understanding? Theoretical is something that is based on an assumption or opinion. Theoretical things are based on theory and ideas, The theoretical understanding of the world, is the aim of philosophy. The theoretical framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories ... Means by which new research data can be interpreted and coded for future. Theoretical approach begins with a conceptualization of how or why something or someone behaves or presents in a certain way. The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory which explains why the research problem under study exists. The theoretical framework defines the key concepts in your research, proposes relations between them, and discusses relevant theories based on a literature review. A strong theoretical framework gives your research direction, allowing you to convincingly interpret, explain and generalize from your findings.
Social Network Theory: Originating author(s) Stanley Milgram: small worlds problem, six degrees of separation Mark Granovetter: the strength of weak ties John Barnes, J. Clyde Mitchell: first to study social networks in the field
Social network theory views social relationships in terms of nodes and ties. Nodes are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between the actors. There can be many kinds of ties between the nodes. In its most simple form, a social network is a map of all of the relevant ties between the nodes being studied.. The power of social network theory stems from its difference from traditional sociological studies, which assume that it is the attributes of individual actors -- whether they are friendly or unfriendly, smart or dumb, etc. -- that matter. Social network theory produces an alternate
view, where the attributes of individuals are less important than their relationships and ties with other actors within the network. Social Network Theory is the study of how people, organizations or groups interact with others inside their network. Understanding the theory is easier when you examine the individual pieces starting with the largest element, which is networks, and working down to the smallest element, which is the actors.
Example: The members of a church. Despite the fact all of them are connected by the overall network, not all the individuals are connected with the same degree of closeness. It's these varying degrees of closeness, or connectedness, that determine the value of that node to the network.
Strengths:  The theory offers an explanation for how random people are connected.  It's useful in the study of large groups and understanding how their members relate to others in the group  It provides insight into viral phenomena, such as viral content, the spread of diseases like ebola, etc.
Weaknesses:  It's difficult to scientifically replicate.  Interpreting relationships/ties can be subjective. Theory In Practice: Social Media The theory is used to understand everything from high employee turnover to the intricate webs associated with terrorist networks. In many ways, its the math behind social network theory that explains how a piece of social media content goes viral in relatively few steps. This math, power functions, shows how a small change in one area can have a huge impact in the overall network. When a change is initiated at the node level, the change moves first from the node, along its ties to the various connected relationships, before being pushed out to additional nodes and their relationships, creating a change throughout the entire social network.
Social information processing (theory) Social information processing theory, also known as SIP, is an interpersonal communication theory and media studies theory developed in 1992 by Joseph Walther. Social information processing theory explains online interpersonal communication without nonverbal cues and how people develop and manage relationships in a computer-mediated environment. Walther argued that online interpersonal relationships may demonstrate the same or even greater relational dimensions and qualities (intimacy) as traditional FtF relationships. However, due to the limited channel and information, it may take longer to achieve than FtF relationships. These online relationships may help facilitate interactions that would not have occurred face-to-face due to factors such as geography and intergroup anxiety. Social information processing(SIP) theory was posited as a formal theory of communication in the context of computer-mediated communication(CMC). SIP explains the evolvement of interpersonal impressions and the modification of relationships through CMC.
The theory was developed in the time where online communication interface featured only textual messages and postulated that motivated individuals who want to engage in relationships, can be communicated through CMC as effectively as face-to-face communication. This theory challenged the existing theories where CMC being critiqued for the absence of nonverbal cues. This perspective rooted in the concept of a functional approach to non-verbal cues. This approach examines the substitutability of cues in the communication, more specifically, the function of communication is not entirely tied to the specific combination of verbal and non-verbal cues, but can be functionally interchangeable with verbal cues and achieve the same effectiveness. Basic assumptions of theory include: 1) Humans always want to affiliate and seek social benefits 2) Interpersonal impression were formed based on the interaction between individuals 3) Development of relationship is based on the interpersonal impressions 4) Individuals use verbal and/or non-verbal cues, languages and textual manipulation to interact. 5) Communication via CMC might take longer time than Face-to-Face communication to form interpersonal impressions.
Violent Media Content and Effects.(Social learning theory)
What is Violence? Aggressive behavior refers to an act that is intended to injure or irritate another person.
In our modern age, electronic media usage is prevalent in almost every part of the world. People are more connected than ever before with easy access to highly portable devices (e.g., laptops, smartphones, and tablets) that allow for media consumption at any time of day. Unfortunately, the presence of violence in electronic media content is almost as prevalent as the media itself. Violence can be found in music, television shows, video games, and even YouTube videos.
Empirical Results Linking Media Violence Exposure to Aggressive Behavior Experimental Studies: One of the most common approaches to investigating the link between media violence and aggression is the usage of brief laboratory experiments. One good example would be the study by Barlett, Branch, Rodeheffer, and Harris (2009). They randomly assigned 69 male participants to play either a violent video game (e.g., Mortal Kombat) or a nonviolent video game (e.g., Hard Hitter Tennis). Afterward, they assessed aggressive behavior using the “hot-sauce” paradigm, in which people are asked to choose an amount of hot sauce to be given to another person who explicitly states that he or she dislikes hot and spicy food. The participants who played the violent game chose to administer significantly more hot sauce than those who played the nonviolent game.
Social Learning Theory:
The basis of social learning theory is simple:
People learn by watching other people. We can learn from anyone—teachers, parents, siblings, peers, co-workers, YouTube influencers, athletes, and even celebrities. We observe their behavior and we mimic that behavior. In short, we do what they do. This theory is also known as social cognitive theory. Social learning theory is a theory of learning process and social behavior which proposes that new behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others. It states that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement. In addition to the observation of behavior, learning also occurs through the observation of rewards and punishments, a process known as vicarious reinforcement. When a particular behavior is rewarded regularly, it will most likely persist; conversely, if a particular behavior is constantly punished, it will most likely desist.[3] The theory expands on traditional behavioral theories, in which behavior is governed solely by reinforcements.
Impact of Digital media:
Digital media has greatly influenced people’s everyday lives in the way they connect, collaborate and work. It has enabled unprecedented levels of communication, community building, and social interaction, breaking the barriers of location, time and social context. The spread of digital media has made possible the rise of new methods of learning, providing underserved communities with better opportunities. Research shows that when digital media is used excessively by humans, it can negatively influence their behavioural and cognitive development as well as their physical and mental health.
1. Digital media empowers people and facilitates social interaction. Whether you are studying abroad, away from your family and friends or if you live in isolation most of the time, digital media can enhance your social interaction. There are several social media sites available such as Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram that allow you to interact not only with your current circle of friends and family but with a diverse range of people. Digital Media allows people to establish and grow relationships without the need for physical interaction. From such interactions, people are exposed to a variety of ideas, cultures, and opportunities.
2. Digital media increases civic participation, gives people a voice and facilitates the creation of communities.
Traditional media has for a long time now, played a central role in informing the public and drawing public attention to particular subjects. With the rise of digital media, this reach has been amplified and new possibilities of interaction have arisen. For example, whenever there is a report of a crisis in some part of the world, digital media has made it possible for people to help out by contributing funds and coordinating efforts to help. This can happen in a matter of hours. People are better able to explore their civic responsibilities through digital media. People have constant and greater access to information such as facts, figures, and statistics allowing them to make well-informed decisions. They can also easily share this information with others, seek counsel or opinions. With digital media, people are able to respond in real time as events unfold, helping to expose certain ills such as political corruption and unfair business practices. Communities are also no longer just for groups of people who are geographically linked but can be formed by people with similar interests. Whether interests involve fitness or topics such as women rights, communities can be formed with members from all over the world.
3. Digital media is revolutionizing how work is done One of the greatest advantages of digital media is increasing the pool of talent available to employers. Remote working has been made possible with digital media. This means that if there is an expert in your field who lives in another continent altogether, a company can still utilize his skills from across the world without him having to relocate.
Many jobs can now be done anywhere, any time. This has been made possible by the availability of high-speed internet, digital data, better messaging, video and audio technology. With 1.7 million active users on a daily business, the application shows how all knowledge, data, and information related to work can be managed within a single platform. 4.Digital media has facilitated education and life-long learning.
Gone are the days where people had a certain period within which they could learn a new skill and could only do it at a physical institution. Digital media has made it possible to have learners of all ages, in all stages of life learning from the comfort of their homes. Whether it is a new mother who is taking a psychology master online as she nurses her baby or a middle school child learning algebra from home. Digital media has revolutionalized not only where we learn but how we learn. Virtual classrooms have enabled collaboration between people from completely different backgrounds with a common interest. Teachers are now able to reach a wider audience of students
Risks and Downsides:
1. Increased ease in the spread of propaganda and harassment:
One of the most notable downfalls of digital media is the increased consumption of false information and inappropriate content.
These days, social media training are common for people to not only be able to verify the information they are getting online but to safeguard the innocence of children.
There are several content creators who maliciously slander other people or create a false panic of the masses for personal gain or pleasure.
Children are also subjected to age-inappropriate content
2. Addiction
Digital media has been likened to drugs in that its use has to be regulated by individuals.
Too much time spent on digital media has caused several people to lose their jobs, families, health, and sanity just like an addictive drug would.
This is a real problem especially among teenagers whose attention span has been realized to have deteriorated because of too much time spent using digital media.
3. Change of social skills
Online connections cannot replace offline contact. The use of social media sites makes people feel like they are connected but in essence, they might not be.
Simply knowing about someone’s personal life from what they post online does not make you close friends.
This can be seen clearly when people only post the good aspects of their lives, omitting the challenges they go through, only to end up in depression or even worse, suicidal. The Impact of Social Media Marketing Today.  Due to the impact of social media, the relationship between brands and consumers have changed a lot. Nowadays, companies create strategies after they analyze and understand the target consumer’s demands, likes and dislikes through Social Media.  Social media has had a major effect on the world and business. Starting from an MNC or a small startup, everyone is adopting Social Media Marketing to make their brand or services visible.  Earlier traditional marketing mediums such as radio, TV commercials and print ads were very costly mediums. But now, through Social media marketing, companies or brands can connect with their target customers for free, the only cost is time . Using social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn etc., you can lower your marketing costs.  Social Media Marketing is having a tremendous impact on business and market as business growth and performance are taking place at an astronomical rate. Social media helps in developing business tactics. Social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn etc., show an opportunity for businesses to grab the attention of the customers while simultaneously building a brand image. These social networks allow businesses to use tactics to build and create brand profiles like fan pages, contests etc.
 Through Social media marketing, one can figure out the likes and preferences of customers as well as the latest trends adopted by the public . Social media marketing helps a brand/company to build a strong online presence by innovative social media marketing techniques and customer satisfaction. Social media has countless benefits some of them are:  Improved Customer Insights Businesses get a better understanding of their customers by allowing them to share their insights, knowing that the brand is listening. Social media allows them to see what potential customer’s opinions are and network with them as well.  Better Customer Service Social media allows businesses to respond to customer grievances, questions, and concerns almost instantly . Customers want to be assured that, if they have a problem they will receive assistance at the earliest possible time.  Cost Efficient When a business is running on a fixed marketing budget, social media is the most cost-efficient way to market and promote the business. Websites like Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest etc., allow any business to share their content for no cost at all. Hence Social media is an affordable advertising platform.  Connectivity Businesses will always be connecting with the customers in terms of changing preferences, lifestyles, and resources and adapt to the changing interest of the consumers .  Establishing Brand Awareness Through social media, it is possible to increase brand awareness among customers as businesses can create awareness by building company image.
Digital Divide: The term digital divide was first coined by Lloyd Morrisett, when he was president of the Markle Foundation.
Digital divide is a term that refers to the gap between demographics and regions that have access to modern information and communications technology, and those that don't or have restricted access. This technology can include the telephone, television, personal computers and the Internet..
Well before the late 20th century, digital divide referred chiefly to the division between those with and without telephone access; after the late 1990s the term began to be used mainly to describe the split between those with and without Internet access, particularly broadband.
Gender digital divide Is defined as gender biases coded into technology products, technology sector and digital skills education. Gender gap:
A paper published by J. Cooper from Princeton University points out that learning technology is designed to be receptive to men instead of women. The reasoning for this is that most software engineers and programmers are men, and they communicate their learning software in a way that would match the reception of their recipient. The association of computers in education is normally correlated with the male gender, and this has an impact on the education of computers and technology among women, although it is important to mention that there are plenty of learning software that are designed to help women and girls learn technology. Overall, the study presents the problem of various perspectives in society that are a result of gendered socialization patterns that believe that computers are a part of the male experience since computers have traditionally presented as a toy for boys when they are children.[61] This divide is followed as children grow older and young girls are not encouraged as much to pursue degrees in IT and computer science. In 1990, the percentage of women in computing jobs was 36%, however in 2016, this number had fallen to 25%. This can be seen in the underrepresentation of women in IT hubs such as Silicon Valley.[62]
In 2015, Amazon had to abandon a recruiting algorithm that showed a difference between ratings that candidates received for software developer jobs as well as other technical jobs. As a result, it was revealed that Amazon's machine algorithm was biased against women and favored male resumes over female resumes. This was due to the fact that Amazon's computer models were trained to vet patterns in resumes over a 10-year period. During this ten-year period, the majority of the resumes belong to male individuals, which is a reflection of male dominance across the tech industry.
Theories of the Press – Journalistic theories.
What an ideal media should be ? The four theories are: the Authoritarian theory – in this theory, the function of the press is to support the policies and actions of the state, and its authorities. The press should foster social solidarity and national unity. The state has the right to control the press for the overall public good. In many cases, controlling the press means preventing the press from embarrassing the existing government, to repress criticism and protest, and to severely restrict press freedom. The authoritarian view was prevalent in 17th century Europe where publishing came under the prerogative and censorship powers of the monarch and church. The authoritarian theory is embraced today by many leaders of non-democratic states. Next, the libertarian theory – the function of the press is to protect the people’s liberties and rights, and to inform the public so they can participate as citizens in democratic self-government. The liberal theory prefers a privately owned news media that is maximally free to inform citizens and criticize public policy, as well as act as a watchdog on authorities. The right to publish and express oneself freely is not a prerogative of the state or a government. It is a fundamental right of free individuals. The liberal theory argues that a free marketplace of ideas, while it may cause harm over the short term, is the best safeguard in the long run for a free and liberal society. Third, the Social responsibility – an American initiative in the late forties brought forth the social responsibility theory. Realizing that the market had failed to fulfil the promise that press freedom would reveal the truth, The Commission on Freedom of the Press provided a model in which the media had certain obligations to society. These obligations were expressed in the words “informativeness, truth, accuracy, objectivity, and balance”. Siebert wrote that the
goal of the social responsibility system is that media as a whole is pluralized, indicating “a reflection of the diversity of society as well as access to various points of view” As opposed to the libertarian theory, the social responsibility principle is to provide an entrance to different mass media to minority groups. The journalist is accountable to his audience as well as to the government. It attempts to balance the liberal stress on the freedom of the press. It argues that such freedoms of a powerful news media must be balanced by social responsibilities. Journalists have a duty to provide well-contextualized news in a comprehensive manner. They have a duty to provide a diverse forum of views and values. They have a duty to go beyond entertaining news consumers and to provide a core of in-depth analysis on the most serious issues. Most media systems in Western Europe today come close to the social responsibility theory. Lastly, the Soviet communist theory – it is closely tied to a specific ideology; the communist. Media in communist societies are state-owned and the government had a division of censorship. Other means of control included the appointment of editors, a large number of directives regarding press content and press reviews and criticisms. The media organizations in this system were not intended to be privately owned and were to serve the interests of the working class.
Media Psychology : It explores how media affect our sensory and cognitive processes, including how media evokes specific behaviors in individuals, larger groups, or global societies. Media psychology requires an understanding of the physical and emotional aspects of the brain. Examples of applied media psychology theories include the psychology of emotions, control, expression, attention, presence, persuasion, sexuality, and gender.
Media psychology focuses on how human behavior interacts with both media and technology. It isn't just mass media or even the content of the media; it's also how the technology behaves, and how it impacts, create a design, and actually can share the behavior. It focuses on technology advancement and uses critical analysis, along with the investigation, to develop a model of the perception on the media. It is used as a whole in society, or even on an individual level. Lots of times, it involves the consulting, design, or even the production of different media. While they do sometimes do different showcase media, it's more than that; it understands how the brain behaves to media.
Media Effects Theories Early media studies focused on the use of mass media in propaganda and persuasion. However, journalists and researchers soon looked to behavioral sciences to help figure out the effect of mass media and communications on society. Scholars have developed many different approaches and theories to figure this out. You can refer to these theories as you research and consider the media’s effect on culture. Widespread fear that mass-media messages could outweigh other stabilizing cultural influences, such as family and community, led to what is known as the direct effects model of media studies. This model assumed that audiences passively accepted media messages and would exhibit predictable reactions in response to those messages. For example, following the radio broadcast of War of the Worlds in 1938 (which was a fictional news report of an alien invasion), some people panicked and believed the story to be true.
Challenges to the Direct Effects Theory The results of the People’s Choice Study challenged this model. Conducted in 1940, the study attempted to gauge the effects of political campaigns on voter choice. Researchers found that voters who consumed the most media had generally already decided for which candidate to vote, while undecided voters generally turned to family and community members to help them decide. The study thus discredited the direct effects model and influenced a host of other media theories (Hanson, 2009). These theories do not necessarily give an all-encompassing picture of media effects but rather work to illuminate a particular aspect of media influence.
MARSHALL MCLUHAN’S INFLUENCE ON MEDIA STUDIES: Understanding Media introduced a phrase that McLuhan has become known for: “The medium is the message.” This notion represented a novel take on attitudes toward media—that the media themselves are instrumental in shaping human and cultural experience.. His bold statements about media gained McLuhan a great deal of attention as both his supporters and critics responded to his utopian views about the ways media could transform 20th-century life. McLuhan spoke of a media-inspired “global village” at a time when Cold War paranoia was at its peak and the Vietnam War was a hotly debated subject.
Agenda-Setting Theory:
In contrast to the extreme views of the direct effects model, the agenda-setting theory of media stated that mass media determine the issues that concern the public rather than the public’s views. Under this theory, the issues that receive the most attention from media become the issues that the public discusses, debates, and demands action on. This means that the media is determining what issues and stories the public thinks about.
Spiral of Silence: The spiral of silence theory, which states that those who hold a minority opinion silence themselves to prevent social isolation, explains the role of mass media in the formation and maintenance of dominant opinions. As minority opinions are silenced, the illusion of consensus grows, and so does social pressure to adopt the dominant position. This creates a self-propagating loop in which minority voices are reduced to a minimum and perceived popular opinion sides wholly with the majority opinion. For example, prior to and during World War II, many Germans opposed Adolf Hitler and his policies; however, they kept their opposition silent out of fear of isolation and stigma.
Cultivation Analysis: The cultivation analysis theory states that heavy exposure to media causes individuals to develop an illusory perception of reality based on the most repetitive and consistent messages of a particular medium. This theory most commonly applies to analyses of television because of that medium’s uniquely pervasive, repetitive nature. Under this theory, someone who watches a great deal of television may form a picture of reality that does not correspond to actual life. Televised violent acts, whether those reported on news programs or portrayed on television dramas, for example, greatly outnumber violent acts that most people encounter in their daily lives.
Thus, an individual who watches a great deal of television may come to view the world as more violent and dangerous than it actually is.