1. Aims, Goals and Objectives

There has been felt the need of aims, goals and objectives of courses of all kinds in education. Now a day there is hardly any course or subject without specified set of objectives, goals and aims. In national curriculum of Pakistan 2006, these levels have been renamed as learning outcomes, learning strands, benchmarks and standards. In our educational policy, it is clearly stated that there is a dire need for the development of standards in every area of education. It refers that goals, aims and objectives of different subjects and disciplines is the foremost requirement.

Most probably the aims and goals of the education, being broader and very common. But when they are specified, they become different and coherent with the subject area. The objectives/learning outcomes of science are different to that of arts, and the learning outcomes/objectives of theory of science differs from practical component of Science. Practical component lays stress on acquisition of skills. So objectives are framed in accordance with these skills.

The curriculum aims, and objectives are achieved through: using different methods, strategies and techniques. Theory is taught by teacher centered methods to learner centered methods. Laboratory methods are an important strategy for teaching science.  Laboratory activities aim at achieving affective and psychomotor skills. Practical subjects include physics, chemistry and biology. With the change in scenario and paradigm shift now instructional objectives have been shifted to learning objectives. Further learning objectives are now considered as behavioural objectives. That’s why it setting of targets (aims, goals and objectives) is evident. Then allocation of resources, teaching methods, assessment modes and tools are determined in line with set goals, aims and objectives. 

In science courses two broad approaches have been adapted these days. The first is traditional approach of the pure sciences and is based upon a view of the structure of the discipline. Its starting point is in questions such as ‘what is required for an appreciation of this aspect of inorganic chemistry’? or what does a student need to know to understand experimentation?.these require an analysis of the demands of the subject and regard it as the central organizing feature around which the course is built.

In the discipline –centered approach, laboratory topics and problems are chosen, in the light of important techniques, methods or concepts.  The resulting teaching may have no resemblance to the current activities of practitioners in the field, but should relate to key ideas in the discipline of either a practical or theoretical nature. This approach is particularly important in training future academic scientists who will have responsibility for advancing their subjects.

Second approach is based upon needs and tasks in view of what is required of the student either for future employment or in subsequent courses. Its starting point is in questions such as ‘what skills does a graduate in chemistry need? Some of these needs will be related to the discipline but others may well relate to professional practice or to more general needs of graduates, such as in the area of communication skills.

Hofstein and Lunetta (1982) pointed out that many goals for the laboratory are almost same with those defined for science courses in general. A good laboratory activity may have many objectives, some aims and one or two goals.

Potential goals of laboratory classes:

• Develop intuition and deepen understanding of concepts.
• Apply concepts learned in class to new situations.
• Experience basic phenomena.
• Develop critical, quantitative thinking.
• Develop experimental and data analysis skills.
• Learn to use scientific apparatus.
• Learn to estimate statistical errors and recognize systematic errors.
• Develop reporting skills (written and oral).
• Practice collaborative problem solving.
• Exercise curiosity and creativity by designing a procedure to test a hypothesis.
• Better appreciate the role of experimentation in science.
• Test important laws and rules.

(from Science Teaching Reconsidered, National Academy Press, 1997 http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/str/)

2    Generating Aims and Objectives

Aims of s laboratory are coherent with the aims of theory teaching. It is considered that laboratory also helps making sense of particular subject. A list of aims for Physics, Chemistry and Biology are listed below:

• The aims of physics, Chemistry and Biology  laboratory at secondary school level are to enable students to:

1.      develop the understanding of procedural knowledge.

2.      davelop the ability to explain the processes and applications related to science subjects.

3.      develop an ability to handle the apparatus carefully, and use the resources wisely.

4.      develop interest and motivation through laboratory which will lead to development of positive attitude.

5.      apply skills and knowledge in real life situations.

6.      develop scientific understanding of the physical world.

7.      an appreciation for the products and influences of science and technology.

8.      develop a respect for evidence , rationality and intellectual honesty.

9.      develop ability to work together.

10.    develop an ability to express themselves coherently and logically.

11.    develop mental and motor abilities.

2.1 Aims generated by Expert teachers during a survey in January 2017

A survey was conducted during the month of January 2017, science teachers teaching in Islamabad Model Schools and colleges sugessted following aims of laboratory work.

• Lab work develops confidence among the students.
• Develops handling skills.
• Develop operational skills.
• Develop Manipulating skills.
• Develop observational skills.
• Develop ability to verify theoretical knowledge.
• Develop scientific attitude.
• Make able to write reports of laboratory work.
• Development of skills to avoid hazards.
• Develop  skills to deal with chemicals
• Developing understanding in designing experiments.
• Developing understanding regarding handling of data.
• Develop understanding about inferring and predicting..

5.2.2 Objectives

Objectives are specific statements, and many objectives come under the umbrella of a single aim. Further objectives are specified upto the level of single practical. Each practical has its specific objectives. Specific objectives in specific practicals from a specific discipline are listed below:

Subject:  Biology

Objective: Students will demonstrate an experiment to show the process of photosynthesis using an aquatic plant, like hydrilla.

Specific Objectives:

The students are able to:

• Write procedure of practical.
• Set the apparatus according to prescribed procedure.
• Make intensive observations and find the changes during experimentation.
• Draw the diagram of the set apparatus.
• Introduce bubbles.
• Take data carefully and draw results.
• Define photosynthesis
• Tell which gas is released during the process of photosynthesis.
• Report the correct results.

 Subject: Chemistry

Practical Problem: to Determine melting point of organic Solids.

General Objective: to find out melting point of organic solids.

Specific Objectives:

The students are able to:

• Write procedure of the experiment
• Set the apparatus according to prescribed procedure.
• Handle the apparatus carefully.
• Read the boiling reading from thermometer.
• Interpret the results

 Subject: Physics

Practical problem: the students will determine the position of centre of mass/ gravity of regular and irregular objects.

General Objective; to find out centre of gravity of regular and irregular objects

Specific Objectives:

Students will be able to

• Hang the regular object correctly
• Draw lines from centre of gravity.
• Find out centre of gravity
• Hang the irregular object at different points.
• Draw the line passing and touching at one point.
• Find the centre of gravity.
• Compare the centre of gravity for regular and irregular objects.

 3    Implementation of Aims and Objectives

Aims are used as standards to be achieved. Aims and objectives are very important in course design, and it is very important in laboratory classes these days as there is evidence to suggest that there is substantial lack of clarity in these areas. It is common observation of most of people that teachers use different approaches to assess the practical work of the students. If there are prescribed objectives in the form of student learning outcomes, this assessment will operate as criterion referenced assessment. It will become easier for teachers to gauge the performance level of the students in laboratory work. When there are no set criteria for practical objectives, some teachers use process approach but others use product approach.

There are many ways in which aims and objectives can be formulated. One thing which is common in all these is that they assist laboratory teachers to think clearly about their intentions. The simplest form of expression is in terms of what the teacher or demonstrator will do: for example train students in making deductions from measurements. This is a statement of the intention of the teacher, which may or may not be embodied in the teaching materials provided. It does not say what students are expected to be able to do: will students know about making deductions, or will they simply be expected to make deductions from given measurements? 

3.1 Using Aims and Objectives in Course Design and Implementation

Tremlet (1972&2007), in a review of Chemistry teaching in higher education, concluded: faculty views not only did not agree on the same laboratory aims for comparable courses in different institutions, but disagreement existed within the same institution and even between faculty teaching in the same laboratory class. There was also evidence to suggest marked differences of opinion about the relative importance of aims which were held in common. Such divergence of opinion, when expressed explicitly, leads towards consensus. However, agreement cannot be reached if views are hidden or are presented partially or in general terms. Tools that can help you design course objectives:

• Understanding by Design (Center for Teaching, Vanderbilt): Describes the Backward Design process as outlined in Understanding By Design by Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe
• Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
• Course Design Tutorial 

4    Using Aims and Objectives to guide Student Learning

One of the common complains of Science students is that laboratory work has less connections with that happens in the rest of the course. It is also objected that the laboratory courses is not primarily designed to illustrate lectures. This problem is same for many science subjects. This problem probably arises from lack of clarity about the