1. Voices

Voice is the term used to describe whether a verb is active or passive.

In other words, when the subject of the verb is doing the action of the verb (e.g., "The dog bit the postman."), the verb is said to be in the active voice. When the subject of the verb is being acted upon (e.g., "The postman was bitten."), the verb is said to be in the passive voice. So, the voice of a verb tells us whether the subject is acting or being acted upon.

What Is the Active Voice?

If the subject is performing the action, then the verb is said to be in the active voice. Look at this:

 

What Is the Passive Voice?

If the subject is having the action done to it, then the verb is said to be in the passive voice. Look at this:

 

 

Got it? Take a quick test.

 

Easy Examples of Voice

Here are some more examples of verbs (shown in bold) in the active voice.

• Lee ate the pies.

(Lee is the subject of the verb. The subject is doing the action of the verb.)

• We play hopscotch.

(We is the subject of the verb. The subject is doing the action of the verb.)

• The sharks will attack the cage.

(The sharks is the subject of the verb. The subject is doing the action of the verb.)

Here are some more examples of verbs in the passive voice.

• The pies were eaten by Lee.

(The pies is the subject of the verb. The subject is being acted upon.)

• Hopscotch is played by us.

(Hopscotch is the subject of the verb. The subject is being acted upon.)

• The cage will be attacked by the sharks.

(The cage is the subject of the verb. The subject is being acted upon.)

Real-Life Examples of Voice

In the examples above, the actions of the verbs (to eat, to play, to attack) are obvious physical activities. Remember though that not all verbs describe such obvious activities. This is particularly true for verbs in the active voice. The verbs in these four examples are all in the active voice.

• Dogs sniff good smells with their left nostril.
• I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too. (Queen Elizabeth I)
• The voice of Mickey Mouse and the voice of Minnie Mouse became husband and wife in real life.
• Only a quarter of the Sahara Desert is sandy.

Here are some verbs in the passive voice with less obvious actions.

• At one time, Melbourne was known as Batmania.
• Philosophy was considered science once. (Satirist PJ O'Rourke)

Only a verb that acts on something else (called a transitive verb) can be written in the passive voice.

• More people are killed taking selfies than in shark attacks.

(To kill is a transitive verb; i.e., you kill something.)

• That tiny pocket in jeans was designed to store pocket watches.

(To design is a transitive verb; i.e., you design something.)

• Avocados were named after the Nahuatl word for testicles.

(To name is a transitive verb; i.e., you name something.)

If a verb is intransitive (i.e., it does not act on something else), it will always be in the active voice.

• Being English, I always laugh at anything about the lavatory or bottoms. (Actress Elizabeth Hurley)

(To laugh is an intransitive verb. You can't laugh a dog, for example.)

• Anybody who smiles automatically looks better. (Actress Diane Lane)

(To smile and to look are intransitive verbs. You can't smile a dog or look a dog, for example.)

• Our noses and ears grow throughout our lives.

(Here, to grow is an intransitive verb.)

Other common intransitive verbs are to cry, to die, to disappear, and to wait. Remember that these cannot be used in the passive voice. As intransitive verbs don't act on something (i.e., have no objects), there is nothing to become the subject of a verb in the passive voice.

It gets a little bit more complicated because some verbs, like to grow, can be intransitive or transitive.

• I grew tomatoes.

(Here, to grow is transitive. That means we can make it passive.)

• Tomatoes were grown by me.

(This is the passive version.)

• The beanstalk grew quickly.

(Here, to grow means to get bigger. In this meaning, it is intransitive. That means we can't make it passive. The beanstalk was got bigger quickly. That's nonsense.)

Read more about transitive verbs and intransitive verbs.

Here's something else to look out for. It is extremely common for verbs in the active voice and the passive voice to be used after words like can, cannot, may, might, must, and should (called modal auxiliary verbs).

• He who is to be a good ruler must have been ruled. (Philosopher Aristotle)

(Is is in the active voice. Have been ruled, which follows the modal must, is in the passive voice.)

• Canadians say "sorry" so much that The Apology Act was passed in 2009, declaring that an apology cannot be used as evidence of admission of guilt.

(Was passed is in the passive voice. Be used, which follows the modal cannot, is also in the passive voice.)

It is common for verbs in the active voice and passive voice to appear in the same sentence.

• Theodore Roosevelt owned a pet hyena, which was given to him by an Ethiopian emperor.

(Owned is in the active voice. Was given is in the passive voice.)

• My music was considered uncool, but I always felt a connection with the audience. (Singer David Cassidy)

(Was considered is in the passive voice. Felt is in the active voice.)

• The scary thing is that in my lifetime, 95 per cent of the world's rhinos have been killed.

(Is is in the active voice. Have been killed is in the passive voice.)

Why Should I Care about Voice?

There are four good reasons to care about grammatical voice.

(Reason 1) The active voice offers some great benefits.

Writers tend to opt for the active voice over the passive voice for the following reasons:

• (Reason 1) The active voice is more succinct.
• (Reason 2) The active voice is more direct.
• (Reason 3) The active voice is more informative.
• (Reason 4) The active voice is more authoritative.
• (Reason 5) The active voice is more engaging.

(NB: Each of these benefits is explained in more detail on the active sentences page.)

(Reason 2) The passive voice offers some great benefits.

Here are four benefits of the passive voice.

• (Reason 1) The passive voice can be used to avoid blame.
• (Reason 2) The passive voice shows a neutral or objective tone.
• (Reason 3) The passive voice is often appropriate when the doer of the verb is obvious, unimportant or unknown.
• (Reason 4) The passive voice allows you to focus on what's important by bringing it to the front of your sentence.

(NB: Each of these benefits is explained in more detail on the passive sentences page.)

(Reason 3) Use both the active and passive voice, as required.

Even though the passive voice has its benefits, the bias for the active voice is so strong that proofreaders (real people) and grammar checkers (computer programs) will often try "to correct" a passive construction to an active one.



Have the confidence to ignore your grammar checker. Use the active voice and the passive voice, as required, to control the flow of text and to stress the most important parts of your sentences. Look at these sentences written in active voice:

• King John signed the Magna Carta in 1215. He placed limits on his powers and proclaimed certain liberties.

Now compare the mixed sentences telling the same information:

• In 1215, the Magna Carta was signed by King John. He placed limits on his powers and proclaimed certain liberties.

There are two important things happening in our second example. First, we've made the Magna Carta the subject of the sentence to highlight what we're talking about. Second, we've ended our sentence with King John. As the first word of the second sentence is He, our text now flows smoothly.

(Reason 4) Are you even dealing with the passive voice?

It's not uncommon for proofreaders and grammar checkers to identify something as passive voice that is, in fact, active voice.

Proofreaders and grammar checkers look for passive-voice constructions by finding a form of the verb "to be" (e.g., am, are, is, was, were, has been, have been, had been, will be, will have been, being, be) followed by a past participle (i.e., the form of the verb that typically ends in -ed or -en). Most of the time, this system works.

Form of the verb to be	Past participle	Passive voice
am	licensed	I am licensed to kill.
was	developed	It was developed last year.
has been	seen	He has been seen in France.
will have been	eaten	It will have been eaten by then.

Remember that modals like can, cannot, could, might, and should can also feature.

Modal	Form of the verb to be	Past Participle	Passive voice
cannot	be	licensed	I cannot be licensed to kill.
might	be	developed	It might be developed last year.
should	have been	seen	He should have been seen in France.
could	have been	eaten	It could have been eaten by then.

However, some constructions that look like the passive voice aren't. Here's an example:

• I always wanted to be somebody, but now I realize I should have been more specific. (Actress Lily Tomlin)

(There is no past participle after have been.)

Here's an example of something that looks a lot like passive voice but isn't:

• All the mistakes I have ever made in my life have been when I have been drunk. (Artist Tracy Emin)

(There is no past participle after have been. Here, drunk is an adjective and not part of the verb, even though drunk is the past participle of to drink. Confused? Think of it like this: the subject of the verb (I) is not being acted upon.)

This is passive voice:

• I have been drunk under the table by Russian sailors.

(Here, the subject of the verb (I) is being acted upon. "The Russian sailors drank me under the table" is an active-voice version.)

Here's another example of something that looks a lot like passive voice but isn't:

• Europeans were scared of eating tomatoes when they were introduced.

(Were is in the active voice. Were introduced is in the passive voice. Here, were scared looks like it's in the passive voice, especially because scared is the past participle of to scare. However, scared is not part of the verb in this example. It's an adjective meaning afraid.)

So, it's quite understandable why some proofreaders and grammar checkers confuse the passive voice with an active-voice sentence that features the verb "to be" in one of its forms. Here's a pretty good trick to avoid that mistake, and it's fun.

If you can include the term "by zombies" after your verb and it still makes sense, then you're dealing with the passive voice. (Thanks to Dean of Academics and Deputy Director Rebecca Johnson for this tip.)

• The car could have been stolen…by zombies.

(This makes sense. Therefore, have been stolen is in the passive voice.)

• The car could have been illicit…by zombies.

(This makes no sense. Therefore, have been illicit is in the active voice.)

As a native English speaker, you're probably already great at deciding between active and passive voice. You are pretty safe to let your instinct guide you, but, as a general rule, you should try to use the active voice unless you specifically want one of the benefits offered by the passive voice.

Here's a great example of a proofreader trying way too hard to avoid the passive voice:

• When the author of Diabetes for Dummies (Dr Alan Rubin) wrote "The patient was comatose and was given thyroid hormone," his editors changed it to "The patient was comatose and took thyroid hormone." In response to this edit, Rubin said: "These are extremely sick patients. They can't take care of themselves. They have to be passive whether Wiley [style guide] likes it or not."

(Better a passive sentence than an inappropriate one.)

Key Points

• Develop a bias for active sentences over passive sentences because active sentences are shorter, more direct, more informative, more authoritative, and easier to absorb.
• Don't be dogmatic about using active sentences though because passive sentences are also useful for avoiding blame, portraying a neutral tone, and focussing on the recipient of the action of a verb rather than the doer.

 

1. Narration

The art of reporting the words of a speaker is called Narration.

There are two main ways of reporting the words of a speaker.

1. Direct Speech

2. Indirect Speech

Direct Speech

In this form, the actual words of the speaker are put in quotes “”.
Ex:-

1. Rama said,” I am very busy now.”
2. In the above example the Speaker i.e
3. Rama is known as Reporter,
4. said is known as Reporting verb and
5. “I am very busy now.” is known as Reported Speech.

Indirect Speech

In this form, the actual words of the speaker are transformed and said/written in a simple manner.

Ex:-

• Rama said that he was very busy then.

 

Basic rules to convert a Direct Speech to Indirect Speech.

There are five basic things that have to be changed while converting a Direct speech to an Indirect speech.

1. To change the reporting verb according to the reported speech.
2. To remove the inverted comma’s from the direct speech and replace them with an appropriate conjunction.
3. To change the pronoun of reported speech accordingly.
4. Change the adverbs of the Direct Speech.

Active - Rajiv said to me,” I shall go to the picture today”
Passive - Rajiv told me that he would go to the picture that day.

In the above example

Reporting verb said to is changed into told.
Inverted Commas are replaced by the conjunction that
Reported speech’s pronoun I is changed into He.
Reported speech’s verb shall go is changed into would go.
As another change today is changed with the word that day.

Rules of change of Pronouns

Nominative	Possessive	Objective	Reflexive
I	My	Me	Myself
We	Our	Us	Ourselves
You	Yours	You	Yourself
He	His	Him	Himself
She	Her	Her	Herself
They	Their	Them	Themselves

Pronouns are changed according to a rule designated as SON where

• S stands for Subject 
• O stands for Object   
• N stands for No change.

1. First person changes to subject of Reporting Verb
2. Second person changes to Object of Reporting Verb
3. There is no change if it is a Third person.

Rule No 1.
1st Person pronoun of Reported speech is changed according to the Subject of Reporting verb.

Direct: She says, “I am in tenth class.”
Indirect: She says that she is in tenth class.

Direct: I say, “I am an honest man.”
Indirect: I say that I am an honest man.

 

Rule No 2.
2nd Person pronoun of Reported speech is changed according to Object of Reporting verb.

Direct: She says to me, “you have done your work”
Indirect: She tells me that I have done my work.

Direct: She says to her, “You have done your work”
Indirect: She tells her that she has done her work.

Direct: I say to them, “you have done your work.”
Indirect: I tell them that they have done their work.

 

Rule No 3.
3rd Person Pronoun of Reported speech is not changed.

Direct: He says, “He does not work hard”
Indirect: He says that he does not work hard.

Direct: Everybody says, “They have spoken the truth”
Indirect: Everybody says that they have spoken the truth.

 

Rules of change of verb or Tense

Rule No.1

If reporting verb is given in Present or Future tense then there will be no change in the verb or tense of Reported speech

Direct: The teacher says, “Gayatri performs on the stage”
Indirect: The teacher says that Gayatri performs on the stage.

Direct: The teacher is saying, “Gayatri performs on the stage”
Indirect: The teacher is saying that Gayatri performs on the stage.

Direct: The teacher  will say, “Gayatri is performing on the stage”
Indirect: The teacher will say that Gayatri is performing on the stage.

 

Rule No.2

If reporting verb is given in Past tense then the tense of the verb of Reported Speech will change into corresponding Past tense.

Direct: The teacher said, “I am suffering from fever.”
Indirect: The teacher said that she was suffering from fever.

Direct: She said to me, “I took the breakfast in the morning”.
Indirect: She told me that she had taken the breakfast in the morning.

 

Corresponding Changes to past form in an indirect speech from the verb in Reported speech.

1. Simple present changes to Simple Past
2. Present Continuous changes to Past Continuous
3. Present Perfect changes to Past Perfect
4. Present Perfect Continuous changes to Past Perfect Continuous
5. Simple Past changes to Past Perfect
6. Past Continuous changes to Past Perfect Continuous
7. In Future Tense will/Shall changes to would
8. Can changes to Could
9. May changes to Might

 

Some of the exceptional cases of Rule 2

Exception 1: 

If Reporting speech has Universal Truth or Habitual fact then there is no change in the Tense. 

Direct: Our teacher said, “The earth is round”
Indirect: Our teacher said that the earth is round.( Universal Truth)

Direct: Rajiv said to me, “He plays with right hand”
Indirect: Rajiv told me that he plays with the right hand.(Habitual fact)

 

Exception 2:
If reporting speech has Past Historical Fact then there is no change in the Tense.

Direct: Our teacher said, “Asoka left war after the conquest of Kalinga”.
Indirect: Our teacher said that Asoka left war after the conquest of Kalinga.

 

Exception 3:
If Reporting speech has two actions to be happening at a time when there is no change in the Tense.

Direct: She said “My wife was making lunch when I was studying”
Indirect: She said that her wife was making lunch when she was studying.

 

Exception 4:
If Reporting speech has some Imagined Condition then there is no change in the Tense.

Direct: She said, “If I were rich, I would help him.”
Indirect: She said that if she were rich she would help her.

 

Exception 5:
If Reporting speech contains had 3rd form, to-infinitive and would, could, should, must, might, ought to etc. then there is no change in the Tense.

Direct: She said to me, “You should obey your elders.”
Indirect: She told me that I should obey my elders.

Some other small changes that used to take place while changing Direct Speech to Indirect Speech.

Here	Changes to	There
Now	Changes to	Then
This	Changes to	That
These	Changes to	Those
Today	Changes to	That day
To-night	Changes to	That night
Yesterday	Changes to	The previous day
Last night	Changes to	The previous night
Last week	Changes to	The previous week
Tomorrow	Changes to	The next day
Next Week	Changes to	The following week
Ago	Changes to	Before
Thus	Changes to	so
Hence	Changes to	Thence
Hither	Changes to	Thither
Come	Changes to	Go

Note:-An in indirect speech we talk about such incidents that are after the time of reporting and  had happened away from the place of reporting therefore the words that show nearness has to be replaced by the words that show distance.

Some exception in these changes

1.Come is changed to go if there is some word given after come that shows nearness.

2. If this, here and now points to such a thing, place or time that is in front of the speaker then no change takes place in Indirect Narration.

 

Rules for Change in Narration of different type of sentences

Type No 1. Assertive Sentences

Rule 1

• If there is no object after Reporting verb there it should not be changed. 
• If there is some object after Reporting verb then say is changed to tell, says to tells and said to told.
• According to the context said to can be replaced by replied, informed, stated, added, remarked, asserted, assured, pleaded, reminded, reported or complained etc. 

Rule 2

• Put conjunction that in place of “  ”.
• Change the pronouns of the Reported speech as enlisted earlier.

Examples showing some Assertive Sentences Changed into Indirect form

Direct: She said to me, “I shall sleep now”
Indirect: She told me that she would play then.

Direct: He said, “My brother’s marriage comes off next month.”
Indirect: He said that his brother’s marriage would come off the following month.

 

Type No 2. Interrogative Sentences

Rule 1

• An interrogative sentence is meant to ask questions, therefore, Reporting verb said/said to is changed to asked.
• Said to can also be changed into enquired or demanded

Rule 2

• If question is formed with the help of any of the helping verbs like is/are/am, was/were, has/have, do/does, will/would etc then “ __” are to be replaced by if or whether
• If the question is formed with the help of words starting with “Wh”  like who, whose, what, whom, when etc (also known as W family) or How then to replace “___” no conjunction is used.

Rule 3

• In these sentences question form of the sentence is removed and full-stop is put at the end of the sentence.
• Helping verb is /are/am, was/were etc should be put after the subject.
• If the interrogative sentence is expressing positive feeling then do/does of the Direct speech is removed while converting it into Indirect speech.
• If the interrogative sentence is expressing negative feeling then do/does of the Direct speech is changed into did while converting it into Indirect speech.
• Did or has/have the interrogative sentence is changed to had.

Rule 4

• Pronouns and verbs are changed according to the set rule of Narration.

1. Punctuation

There are 14 punctuation marks that are commonly used in English grammar. They are the period, question mark, exclamation point, comma, semicolon, colon, dash, hyphen, parentheses, brackets, braces, apostrophe, quotation marks, and ellipsis. Following their correct usage will make your writing easier to read and more appealing.

 

Sentence Endings

Three of the fourteen punctuation marks are appropriate for use as sentence endings. They are the period, question mark, and exclamation point.

The period (.) is placed at the end of declarative sentences, statements thought to be complete and after many abbreviations.

• As a sentence ender: Jane and Jack went to the market.
• After an abbreviation: Her son, John Jones Jr., was born on Dec. 6, 2008.

Use a question mark (?) to indicate a direct question when placed at the end of a sentence.

• When did Jane leave for the market?

The exclamation point (!) is used when a person wants to express a sudden outcry or add emphasis.

• Within dialogue: "Holy cow!" screamed Jane.
• To emphasize a point: My mother-in-law's rants make me furious!

Comma, Semicolon, and Colon

The comma, semicolon, and colon are often misused because they all can indicate a pause in a series.

The comma is used to show a separation of ideas or elements within the structure of a sentence. Additionally, it is used in numbers, dates, and letter writing after the salutation and closing.

• Direct address: Thanks for all your help, John.
• Separation of two complete sentences: We went to the movies, and then we went out to lunch.
• Separating lists or elements within sentences: Suzi wanted the black, green, and blue dress.

Whether to add a final comma before the conjunction in a list is a matter of debate. This final comma, known as an Oxford or serial comma, is useful in a complex series of elements or phrases but is often considered unnecessary in a simple series such as in the example above. It usually comes down to a style choice by the writer.

The semicolon (;) is used to connect independent clauses. It shows a closer relationship between the clauses than a period would show.

• John was hurt; he knew she only said it to upset him.

A colon (:) has three main uses. The first is after a word introducing a quotation, an explanation, an example, or a series.

• He was planning to study four subjects: politics, philosophy, sociology, and economics.

The second is between independent clauses when the second explains the first, similar to a semicolon:

• I didn't have time to get changed: I was already late.

The third use of a colon is for emphasis:

• There was one thing she loved more than any other: her dog.

A colon also has non-grammatical uses in time, ratio, business correspondence and references.

Dash and the Hyphen

Two other common punctuation marks are the dash and hyphen. These marks are often confused with each other due to their appearance but they are very different.

A dash is used to separate words into statements. There are two common types of dashes: en dash and em dash.

• En dash: Twice as long as a hyphen, the en dash is a symbol (–) that is used in writing or printing to indicate a range, connections or differentiations, such as 1880-1945 or Princeton-New York trains.
• Em dash: Longer than the en dash, the em dash can be used in place of a comma, parenthesis, or colon to enhance readability or emphasize the conclusion of a sentence. For example, She gave him her answer — No!
  Whether you put spaces around the em dash or not is a style choice. Just be consistent.

A hyphen is used to join two or more words together into a compound term and is not separated by spaces. For example, part-time, back-to-back, well-known.

Brackets, Braces, and Parentheses

Brackets, braces, and parentheses are symbols used to contain words that are a further explanation or are considered a group.

Brackets are the squared off notations ([]) used for technical explanations or to clarify meaning. If you remove the information in the brackets, the sentence will still make sense.

• He [Mr. Jones] was the last person seen at the house.

Braces ({}) are used to contain two or more lines of text or listed items to show that they are considered as a unit. They are not commonplace in most writing but can be seen in computer programming to show what should be contained within the same lines. They can also be used in mathematical expressions. For example, 2{1+[23-3]}=x.

Parentheses ( () ) are curved notations used to contain further thoughts or qualifying remarks. However, parentheses can be replaced by commas without changing the meaning in most cases.

• John and Jane (who were actually half brother and sister) both have red hair.

Apostrophe, Quotation Marks and Ellipsis

The final three punctuation forms in English grammar are the apostrophe, quotation marks, and ellipsis. Unlike previously mentioned grammatical marks, they are not related to one another in any form.

An apostrophe (') is used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters from a word, the possessive case, or the plurals of lowercase letters. Examples of the apostrophe in use include:

• Omission of letters from a word: I've seen that movie several times. She wasn't the only one who knew the answer.
• Possessive case: Sara's dog bit the neighbor.
• Plural for lowercase letters: Six people were told to mind their p's and q's.

It should be noted that, according to Purdue University, some teachers and editors enlarge the scope of the use of apostrophes, and prefer their use on symbols (&'s), numbers (7's) and capitalized letters (Q&A's), even though they are not necessary.

Quotations marks (" ") are a pair of punctuation marks used primarily to mark the beginning and end of a passage attributed to another and repeated word for word. They are also used to indicate meanings and to indicate the unusual or dubious status of a word.

• "Don't go outside," she said.

Single quotation marks (' ') are used most frequently for quotes within quotes.

• Marie told the teacher, "I saw Marc at the playground, and he said to me 'Bill started the fight,' and I believed him."

The ellipsis is most commonly represented by three periods (. . . ) although it is occasionally demonstrated with three asterisks (***). The ellipsis is used in writing or printing to indicate an omission, especially of letters or words. Ellipses are frequently used within quotations to jump from one phrase to another, omitting unnecessary words that do not interfere with the meaning. Students writing research papers or newspapers quoting parts of speeches will often employ ellipsis to avoid copying lengthy text that is not needed.

• Omission of words: She began to count, "One, two, three, four…" until she got to 10, then went to find him.
• Within a quotation: When Newton stated, "An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion..." he developed the law of motion.

British vs. American English

There are a few differences between punctuation in British and American English. The following charts details some of those differences:

	British English	American English
The " . " symbol is called	A full stop	a period
The " ! " symbol is called	an exclamation mark	an exclamation point
The " ( ) " symbols are called	brackets	parentheses
The " [ ] " symbols are called	square brackets	brackets
The position of quotation marks	Joy means "happiness".	Joy means "happiness."
The punctuation for abbreviations	Dr, Mr, Mrs, St, Rd, Ct	Dr., Mr., Mrs., St., Rd., Ct.

 

1. Common Grammatical errors and their correction

1. Run-on Sentence or Comma Splice

A run-on sentence is a sentence that joins two independent clauses without punctuation or the appropriate conjunction. A comma splice is similar to a run-on sentence, but it uses a comma to join two clauses that have no appropriate conjunction. Fixing a run-on sentence or a comma splice can be accomplished in one of five different ways.

Incorrect sentence: “Rachel is very smart, she began reading when she was three years old.”

• Solution 1: Separate the clauses into two sentences. “Rachel is very smart. She began reading when she was three years old.”
• Solution 2: Replace the comma with a semicolon. “Rachel is very smart; she began reading when she was three years old.”
• Solution 3: Replace the comma with a coordinating conjunction. “Rachel is very smart, for she began reading when she was three years old.”
• Solution 4: Replace the comma with a subordinating conjunction. “Rachel is very smart because she began reading when she was three years old.”
• Solution 5: Replace the comma with a semicolon and transitional word or phrase. “Rachel is very smart; as a result, she began reading when she was three years old.”

2. Pronoun Disagreement

Some of the most common grammar mistakes are pronoun errors. They occur when pronouns do not agree in number with the nouns to which they refer. If the noun is singular, the pronoun must be singular. If the noun is plural, the pronoun must be plural as well.

For example:

• Incorrect: “Every girl must bring their own lunch.”
• Correct: “Every girl must bring her own lunch.”

Pronoun errors are common in modern English, as writers try to avoid awkward phrasing or the implication of sexist language. Although this is an admirable goal, it is still important to learn the correct grammar and use it in more formal situations.

3. Mistakes in Apostrophe Usage

Apostrophes are used to show possession. However, you do not use an apostrophe after a possessive pronoun such as my, mine, our, ours, his, hers, its, their, or theirs.

For example:

• Incorrect: “My mothers cabin is next to his' cabin.”
• Correct: “My mother's cabin is next to his cabin.”

In the case of it's, the apostrophe is used only to indicate a contraction for “it is.”

For example:

• Incorrect: “Its a cold day for October.”
• Correct: “It's a cold day for October.”

4. Lack of Subject-Verb Agreement

Confusion over subject-verb agreement can be the source of many grammatical errors. When speaking or writing in the present tense, a sentence must have subjects and verbs that agree in number. If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular. If the subject is plural, the verb must be plural as well.

For example:

• Incorrect: “These recipes is good for beginning chefs.”
• Correct: “These recipes are good for beginning chefs.”

5. Misplaced Modifiers

To clearly communicate your ideas, you should place a modifier directly next to the word it is supposed to modify. The modifier should clearly refer to a specific word in the sentence. Misplaced modifiers can create confusion and ambiguity.

For example:

• Incorrect: “At eight years old, my father gave me a pony for Christmas.”
• Correct: “When I was eight years old, my father gave me a pony for Christmas.”

6. Sentence Fragments

Sentence fragments are also common grammar mistakes. A sentence needs to have a subject and a verb. A fragment often happens after another related idea has been expressed.

For example:

• Incorrect: “Sharon stayed home from school the other day. Because she was sick.”
• Correct: “Sharon stayed home from school the other day because she was sick.”

 

7. Missing Comma in a Compound Sentence

A compound sentence expresses two complete and related ideas, and it usually includes a conjunction to connect these two parts. There should be a comma before the conjunction to indicate the two ideas are related. If that’s missing, it’s a mistake readers will notice.

For example:

• Incorrect: “Jim went to the store and Ella went with him.”
• Correct: “Jim went to the store, and Ella went with him.”

8. No Clear Antecedent

An antecedent is a word that comes before a pronoun and helps the reader understand what the pronoun means. Generally, you can clear up this confusion by rearranging the wording.

For example:

• Incorrect: “The dad found the boy, and he was happy.”
• Correct: “The dad was happy when he found the boy.”

9. Ending a Sentence in a Preposition

Another common grammar mistake is ending a sentence with a preposition. A preposition, by its nature, indicates that another word will follow it. In casual conversation, this type of error is no big deal, but you should avoid this mistake in your writing.

For example:

• Incorrect: “What reason did he come here for?”
• Correct: “For what reason did he come here?”

10. Mixing Up Spellings

There are words that sound the same but have different spellings and meanings. If you mix these up, it can be an embarrassing mistake. These are a few of the most commonly confused words:

• “You’re” vs. “your”
• “To” vs. “two” vs. “too”
• “Weather” vs. “whether”
• “There” vs. “their”

For example:

• Incorrect: “There father went to school there.”
• Correct: “Their father went to school there.”

 

11. Mixing Up Similar Words

Sometimes, it’s not a matter of mixing up the spelling as much as an error in word choice. There are many words that sound similar but have different meanings and spellings. These include the following:

• “Affect” and “effect”
• “Except” and “accept”
• “Comprise” vs. “compose”
• “Further” vs. “farther”

For example:

• Incorrect: “The rain had a good affect on the farmer’s field.”
• Correct: “The rain had a good effect on the farmer’s field.”

12. Unnecessary Commas

While commas are important for clarity and give the reader a chance to pause in the sentence, it’s possible to use commas when you don’t need them. These unnecessary commas can be confusing to read, and they make writing look less professional. Before you use a comma, think about why you’re using it. If you aren’t sure it’s needed, double check by reviewing comma rules.

For example:

• Incorrect: “She had a stomach ache, because she ate too much ice cream.”
• Correct: “She had a stomach ache because she ate too much ice cream.”

13. Mixing Up Possessives and Plurals

People often get confused when adding an “s” to the end of a word. When do you need an apostrophe? In general, you use an apostrophe before an “s” to show possession or as a contraction, like “that’s” for “that is.” If you’re just trying to say something is plural, you don’t need the apostrophe. Like most rules in the English language, this has some variation. However, if you keep the general guidelines in mind, you’ll be correct most of the time.

For example:

• Incorrect: “The dogs dish was full of bone’s.”
• Correct: “The dog’s dish was full of bones.”

 

14. Mistakes With Well and Good

One of the most common grammatical errors is mixing up “well” and “good.” In general, “well” is an adverb, while “good” is an adjective. When you aren’t sure which one to use, simply ask yourself whether an adjective or an adverb is appropriate for the situation.

For example:

• Incorrect: “I am doing good in math.”
• Correct: “I am doing well in math.”

15. Comparisons That Are Incomplete

When you use a word that has a comparative aspect, you need to compare it to something else. These common grammatical errors may appear in advertisements or market slogans, but it does not work well in papers or other writing. If the word requires a comparison, you should always provide it.

For example:

• Incorrect: “My hair is smoother and softer.”
• Correct: “My hair is smoother and softer than it was a month ago.”

16. Mixing Up Adverbs and Adjectives

If you mix up adverbs and adjectives, this can be an embarrassing grammar mistake. This is the kind of error that can annoy a teacher or make the difference between a great grade on an essay and getting marked down. This happens most often with words that end in “-ly.”

For example:

• Incorrect: “Susan gave me a real nice bouquet of flowers.”
• Correct: “Susan gave me a really nice bouquet of flowers.”

17. Confusion Between Fewer and Less

Many people mix up “fewer” and “less.” If you’re talking about the amount of something, you need to decide whether the item is all one thing or a group of many things. If it’s a group of many smaller things, you should use “fewer.” If it’s one thing, you should use “less.”

For example:

• Incorrect: “The store was almost out of dog food. There were less cans on the shelves than there were yesterday.”
• Correct: “The store was almost out of dog food. There were fewer cans on the shelves than there were yesterday.”

18. Title Capitalization Problems

Knowing when to capitalize the words in a title can be very confusing. In general, you should capitalize the first and last words, all nouns and pronouns, all verbs, and all adjectives and adverbs. However, there are specific title capitalization rules depending on the style you are using.

For example:

• Incorrect: “Around the world in 80 days”
• Correct: “Around the World in 80 Days”