ARTICLES 103. The words a or an and the are called Articles. They come before nouns.

104. There are two Articles - a (or an) and the.

105. A or an is called the Indefinite Article, because it usually leaves indefinite the person or thing spoken of; as, A doctor; that is, any doctor.

106. The is called the Definite Article, because it normally points out some particular person or thing; as, He saw the doctor; meaning some particular doctor. The indefinite article is used before singular countable nouns, e.g. A book, art orange, a girl The definite article is used before singular countable nouns, plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns, e.g., The book, the books, the milk A or An

107. The choice between a and an is determined by sound. Before a word beginning with a vowel sound an is used; as, An ass, an enemy, an ink-pad, an orange, an umbrella, an hour, an honest man. An heir.

It will be noticed that the words hour, honest, heir begin with a vowel sound, as the initial consonant h is not pronounced,

108. Before a word beginning with a consonant sound a is used; as,

A boy, a reindeer, a woman, a yard, a horse, a hole, also a university,, a union, a European, a ewe, a unicorn, a useful article. because these words (university, union, etc.) begin with a consonant sound, that of yu.

Similarly we say, A one-rupee note, such a one, a one-eyed man. because one begins with the consonant sound of w.

109. Some native speakers use an before words beginning with h if the first syllable is not stressed An hotel (More common: a hotel) an historical novel (More common: a historical novel)

Use of the Definite Article

110. The Definite Article the is used- (1) When we talk about a particular person or thing, or one already referred to (that is, when it is clear from the context which one already referred to (that is, when it is clear from the constant which one we mean); as,

The book you want is out of print. (Which book? The one you want.)

Let's go to the park. (= the park in this town)

The girl cried, (the girl = the girl already talked about)

Use of the Indefinite Article 111. The Indefinite Article is used-

(1) In its original numerical sense of one; as, Twelve inches make a foot. Not a word was said. A word to the wise is sufficient. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

(2) In the vague sense of a certain; as, A Kishore Kumar (= a certain person named Kishore Kumar) is suspected by the police. One evening a beggar came to my door.

(3) In the sense of any, to single out an individual as the representative of a class; as, A pupil should obey his teacher. A cow is a useful animal.

(4) To make a common noun of a proper noun; as, A Daniel comes to judgement! (A Daniel = a very wise man)

THE ADVERB 328. Read the following sentences:-

1. Rama runs quickly.

2. This is a very sweet mango.

3. Govind reads quite clearly.

In sentence 1, quickly shows how (or in what manner) Rama runs; that is, quickly modifies the Verb runs

. In sentence 2, very shows how much (or in what degree) the mango is sweet; that is, very modifies the Adjective sweet.

In sentence 3, quite shows how far (or to what extent) Govind reads clearly; that is, quite modifies the Adverb clearly.

A word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another Adverb is called an Adverb. The words quickly, very, and quite are, therefore, Adverbs.

Def.- An Adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a Verb, an Adjective or another Adverb.

329. In the following sentences Adverbs modify phrases:- She was sitting close beside him. At what hour is the sun right above us? Have you read all through this book? She was dressed all in white. He paid his debts down to the last penny.

330. Adverbs standing at the beginning of sentences sometimes modify the whole sentence, rather than any particular word; as, Probably he is mistaken. [=It is probable that he is mistaken.] Possibly it is as you say. Certainly you are wrong. Evidently the figures are incorrect. Unfortunately no one was present there. Luckily he escaped unhurt.

Kinds of Adverbs

331. Adverbs may be divided into the following classes, according to their meaning :-

(1) Adverbs of Time (which show when) I have heard this before. That day he arrrived late. We shall now begin to work. He called here a few minutes ago. I had a letter from him lately. The end soon came. He comes here daily. I hurt my knee yesterday. I have spoken to him already. Wasted time never returns. He once met me in Cairo I have not seen him since. Mr. Gupta formerly lived here.

(2) Adverbs of Frequency (which show how often). I have told you twice. I have not seen him once. He often makes mistakes; He seldom comes here.

(3) Adverbs of Place (which show where). Stand here. Go there. The little lamb followed Mary everywhere. My brother is out. Come in. Walk backward. He looked up. Is Mr. Das within? The horse galloped away.

(4) Adverbs of Manner (which show how or in what manner). The Sikhs fought bravely. The boy works hard. I was agreeably disappointed. Is that so? Thus only, will you succeed. Govind reads clearly. This story is well written. The child slept soundly. Slowly and sadly we laid him down.

(5) Adverbs of Degree or Quantity (which show how much, or in what degree or to what extent). He was too careless. Is that any better? These mangoes are almost ripe. I am fully prepared. You are quite wrong. The sea is very stormy. I am rather busy. He is good enough for my purpose.

(6) Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation Surely you are mistaken. He certainly went.

(7) Adverbs of Reason He is hence unable to refute the charge. He therefore left school.

THE CONJUNCTION 392. Read the following sentences:-

1. God made the country and man made the town.

2. Our hoard is little, but our hearts are great

3. She must weep, or she will die.

4. Two and two make four.

In 1, 2 and 3, the Conjunctions join together two sentences.

In4, the Conjunction joins together two words only. [See § 393.]

Def:- A Conjunction is a word which merely joins together sentences, and sometimes words. 393. Conjunctions join together sentences and often make them more compact.