Chapter 41 

Revolutionary Socialism 

Meanings of Socialism: 

The term ’socialism’ is used in various senses. It may mean a theory of the State, or a theory of society. It may denote a political movement or a party. It may be a political theory or an  economic doctrine. Socialism may be moderate or extreme. It may aim at a revolutionary transformation of human society and State, or may plead for their evolutionary development. Lastly, the same word ”socialism” may be used by two opposite parties or movements which are in absolute opposition and hostility to each other, so that each accuses the other of not being ’socialist` at all. Thus the modern socialists quarrel in the same way as the religious sects and parties used to fight with each other in the past. Owing to this great diversity and difference of its meanings and applications socialism has become, as Joad says, ”like a hat that has lost its shape because everybody wears it.” 

In spite of this diversity and disagreement, there are some general features or principles which are common to almost all schools and forms of Socialism. It means, firstly, the ’socialisation of the means of production and exchange, like land, industry, banks, etc.; secondly, a better distribution and for this purpose a greater production of wealth; thirdly, a collective . organisation of society and State so that wealth and happiness may be equalized for all human beings; and lastly, a theory of the means and 

methods, or a programme of action, for achieving these ends of socialisation, better production, distribution and equalisation of wealth and happiness for all. It is this last feature which is the main reason of the differences among various theories of socialism. That socialist theory whicii 

advocates revolutionary means and methods of socialist transformation ci ] 

society and State is called revolutionary socialism, while the one whici 

seeks to attain socialist aims and ends by constitutional means and 

practices, is called evolutionary socialism. But both revolutionary and evolutionary socialisms are again of different kinds. They have different 

aims, ideals and programmes of action. Broadly, the different kinds at 

revolutionary socialism are:— 

1. Marxism; 2. Communism; 3. Syndicalism. Similarly, evolutionary socialism is of various kinds, as below: 1.         Revisionism, or Evolutionary Marxism; 

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REVULU 11UNAK Y (./(_;1ALIM            N I 

2.        Collectivism, or State Socialism or Fabianism. 3.        Guild Socialism. In this chapter, we shall describe the theories of revolutionary Socialism. 

MARXISM Karl Marx: Founder of Socialism: 

Karl Marx is in a very real sense the father of Socialism. All theories of modern socialism are directly or indirectly influenced by his writings, while some of them, like Communism, are really the continuation of Marxist teachings and theories up to the present day. Historically speaking, there were socialist and communist theories before Marx; such as Plato’s Communism, More’s Utopia, or the French Utopian Socialism of St. Simon and Fourier, or Robert Owen’s socialist plans. But all of them were based upon impracticable dreams of a ’utopia’, which existed nowhere or upon unscientific analysis of human society and life. It was Marx who first gave a scientific analysis of what human society is and spoke in detail of the stages through which it must evolve into socialist or communist society. Hence he is now universally regarded as the founder of scientific socialism, an honour which he shares with his friend and collaborator, Friedrich Engles. Basic Theories of Marxism. 

Almost all theories of modern socialism and communism are derived from the writings and teachings of Karl Marx and  Engles. Here we shall deal with only such of them which are considered as basic theories of Marxism, as follows: 1.     The Materialist Conception of History. 

One of the fundamental beliefs of Marx is that human history, that 

is, human life and society, are determined by the material or economic 

conditions in which man lives at any particular time. Human life is not possible without the satisfaction of needs and necessaries of life, such as food, clothing, shelter, and hundred and one other needs and necessaries of life. But they have to be produced by man with the tools, implements and methods which he has invented or discovered at any particular period of history. They are the means and methods of production, such as the tools, the land, the machines, factories, and sources of power, like animals, steam, electricity etc. These means and methods of production differ in different ages of human history. But these means and techniques create definite social relations between men and groups. These social relations of production form definite social groups and classes, as determined by the forms and kinds of tools, techniques and methods of a particular historical period. They become the social conditions of production. Furthermore, these social relations, conditions and classes create a definite system of 
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ideas, cultures, beliefs, laws, and morals under which, but not on which, these relations of production exist. They exist on means and methods of production. 

But human life and society are not static: they change from age to age. The tools and techniques are improved upon and new ones are invented or discovered. This creates new means and methods of production, which give rise to new social groups and classes. The new classes find themselves in opposition to the older classes. A struggle ensues between them, which is waged on political, social, moral, legal and religious levels. At last, the new classes overthrow the old order and build a new one, with its own laws, customs, morals, religious beliefs, arts, learning and philosophy. This is a new State, a new period in human history. Thus this process of evolution and development of human life and society has continued throughout human history from the earliest times to the present, determined by the economic and material conditions of human life. Marx has succinctly described his materialist conception of history in his Critique of Political Economy thus: ”In the social production which men carry on they enter into definite relations that are indispensable and independent of their will; these relations of production correspond to a definite stage of development of their material powers of production. The sum-total of these relations of production constitutes the economic structure of society the real foundation„ on which rise legal and political superstructures and to which correspond definite forms of social consciousness.” And again, ”Legal relations as well as forms of State could neither b« understood by themselves, nor explained 

by the so-called general progress of the human mind, but are rooted in the 

material conditions of life. The mode of production in material life 

determines the general character of the social, political and spiritual 

processes of life. It is not the consciousness of men that determines th, 

existence but, on the contrary. Their social existence determines ti 

consciousness.” 2.        Theory of Class War. 

Marx’s theory of class war is a necessary conclusion from 

materialist conception of history. As we have said above, Marx belie, 

that human history has evolved, not by the rise of new ideas or by great or by the spread of new beliefs, customs and religions, but as a result of 

economic or material methods and conditions of production which give to new social classes. This leads to a struggle between the new and the 

classes, victory in which lies with the new ones. In other words, history 

nothing but a story of class struggle and conflicts which are waged in 

forms and methods political, moral, religious, intellectual, etc. In hi they are known as political revolutions and changes, the rise of new p and States, new philosophies, new arts, new culture and thought. The 

war was waged by different classes at different stages of human history_ 
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Marx and Engels wrote in the Communist Manifesto: ”Freeman and slave, patrician and plebian, baron and serf, guide master and journeyman, in one word oppressor and oppressed, standing constantly in opposition to each other, carried on an uninterrupted warfare, now open, now concealed.” This struggle goes on even today between the capitalist and the working classes. 3.         Theory of Surplus Value. 

Marx propounded the theory of surplus value in order to explain the structure of the existing capitalist society, the nature of class antagonism and war and the reason why it will change into a socialist society of the future. 

Labour, says Marx, is a commodity, whose value is determined in the same way as that of other commodities. Its exchange-value is the amount of labour spent to produce it and maintain it, that is, the amount of the commodities required to feed, clothe and maintain the labourer. But the labour docs not receive exact amount of the exchange-value of his labour in the capitalist system. This is because he possesses only his labour power, but docs not own the means and methods of production, the tools and machines, raw materials and the like to expend his labour on them and produce commodities. They are possessed by a small class of the capitalists. They employ the labourers to work in their factories and workshops. The labourers know that they have to work or starve. The employers know  that labour is a perishable commodity; either the workers must expend it or it is wasted. Hence they work under the conditions determined by their employers, who pay them only so much wages as are sufficient to  maintain them. In other words; they pay them only subsistence wages. But they sell the commodity produced by them at its exchange-value. The subsistencewage is less than the actual amount of value which the worker has added to the commodity. This difference is the surplus value. It is that amount which results from the  difference between the exchange value of the manufactured commodity and the price or actual wage paid to the worker for his labour. The capitalist has pocketed it due to the laws of property in the capitalist State, although it was the right of the labourer to get it, for it was his unpaid labour. Marx has characterised it as pure and simple exploitation of the labouring class by the capitalist class. This appropriation of the surplus value by the capitalist classes is the fundamental injustice of the modern capitalism and the basic cause of the hostility and antagonism between the capitalists and the working classes. This makes the workers poor and  the capitalists rich. But this process does not end here. It leads to the accumulation of capital. It is, however, the aim and ideal of socialism to put an end to the exploitation and injustice to the workers. This will be achieved in the Socialist State, ”where collective capital will replace private capital, both capitalists and wage-earners disappear, and all persons become cooperating producers.” 
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4.         The Law of Concentration of Capital. 

Marx said that capital, that is, money and machinery, is nothing but the total amount of the past surplus value which the capitalists have appropriated. But the capital tends to grow and become concentrated in the hands of the fewer capitalists. This is because the capitalists try to expand their business, and squeeze out the unsuccessful rival capitalists. The successful ones become monopolists and acquire control of the markets to the exclusion of their lesser competitors. This process is also helped by the better and more rationalised methods and means of production. As a result of this development of monopoly and rationalisation, the number of the capitalist class becomes  smaller, but their capital greater. Those capitalists, who were impoverished and squeezed out of industry and business, join the ranks of the workers. They become politicised. Thus the number of the working classes goes on increasing, while that of the capitalist class goes on ‹lecreasing. At the same time, the poor become poorer and the rich, richer. Marx has termed this process as the Law of the Concentration of Capital. 5.         The Theory of Social Revolution. 

According to Marx, history is a series of class wars and the resultant social revolutions. These social conflicts and revolutions began in the ancient times when private property came into existence, in the primitive communal tribal society. The present capitalist society, according to Marx, has certain inherent weaknesses and contradictions which would inevitably bring about its extinction. ”The weapons with which the bourgeoisie felled feudalism to the ground are now used against the bourgeoisie  itself. But not only has the  bourgeoisie forged the weapons that bring death to itself, it has called into existence the men who are to wield these weapons—the modern working class—the proletariat.” These weapons are the large-scale industry, monopoly economy, growing concentration of capital and the increasing impoverishment of the working masses. Thus the capitalist system and the capitalists generate seeds of thee own destruction. For some time the working classes would continue tc suffer and toil under this system. But at the same time, there will be ”the ever closer and more elaborate organization of the proletariat.” At last the.,■ will be so desperate and also so united that they will overthrow the unbearable capitalist system, first in one country and then in all countries of the world: ”at its climax, the proletariat will arise, overthrow the capitaliK class and expropriate them of the means of  production.” This will be the final social revolution in world history, for the victorious proletariat 

I establish a classless and Stateless communist society.The Communist 

Manifesto proclaimsthisfinal victory by a call tothe workers of the wadi 

to unite in these ringing words: The Communists disdain to conceal 

views and aims. They openly declare that their ends can be attained only I 

the forcible overthrow of all existing social conditions. Let the 
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classes tremble at a Communist revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Workers of all lands, unite!” 

COMMUNISM Meanings of Communism. 

Communism denotes different meanings. In present times, however, it is understood only in the sense of a theory of action for the building of a classless and Stateless society in which there shall be equality, freedom and happiness for all irrespective of colour, creed or nationality. Its theories and principles of action were first defined and described by Karl Marx and Friderick Engels, as we have described above, and were further developed by Lenin, Stalin  and other Communist leader of the countries like Russia, China, etc. This is Modern Communism, which may be briefly described as Marxism-Leninism. Basic Theories of Modern Communism. 

In describing modern Communism, we should recapitulate the theories of Marx as developed by Lenin. These are: 

Leninist Theory of Imperialism. The Communists claim that the class war in present times has become international, for capitalism  has also become international. As Marx said, capitalism develops by its inherent contradictions, which also become the causes of its ultimate destruction. The workers are unable to buy the goods and other articles which they have themselves manufactured, for their wages are so low. This makes it necessary for the capitalists to seek new markets in other countries, both for the supply of raw materials for their industry and a market for their manufactured goods. It leads to a scramble among the capitalist countries for conquering new lands and countries, which become their colonies and dependencies. Thus the whole world is divided among a few capitalist countries. This turns capitalism into international capitalism, or imperialism which is the highest phase of capitalism. Its chief features are the growth of monopolies and trusts in order to exploit the industrial resources and the working classes at home and the subject peoples in the colonies, the growth of the finance, capital and international banking and the impoverishment of the peoples of the colonies and dependencies and, above all, the wars. They are fought between the old and the new capitalist countries for the redistribution of colonies and world-markets between them. But the world wars are the harbingers of communist revolutions in various parts of the world because the working classes have become organised, their sufferings have reached at a climax and famine, inflation and other social evils have spread over large parts of the world. The class war becomes international. In some countries, the workers, led by the communist parties, overthrow capitalism and establish a communist State with an avowed purpose of 

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building socialism and communism. But as communism cannot be established suddenly after the communist revolution, a period of transition from capitalism to communism begins. This is the transitional stage of the socialist State, established after the revolutionary overthrow of the capitalist State. 

The Revolutionary State. During this period of transition, the victorious proletariat, led by their communist party establish the class government of the working classes. The communists call it the Dictatorship of the Proletariat. It is not a constitutional, parliamentary government, which, according to the communists, suits the capitalist States of the bourgeoisie. It is a revolutionary government of the working classes, invested with oppressive and autocratic powers. ”In order to break down the resistance of the bourgeoisie.” writes Marx, ”the workers invest the State with a revolutionary spirit.” Its purpose is to prevent and suppress all attempts of the dispossessed capitalists from regaining their former hold on the State and in the society. Hence the revolutionary dictatorship of the communists will wage a long and obstinate struggle during this transitional period. As Lenin  says, ”the transition from Capitalism to Communism forms whole historical epoch”. During this period, the communist Dictators will bring about the following changes and transitions: the abolition of private property; nationalisation of the means and methods of production, such as land, factories, industrial plants, banks, trade and commerce, and the means of communication and transport; enforcement of an equal liability of all to 

work; abolition of all class distinctions and privileges; prohibition of child 

labour in factories and farms; the universalisation of education and culture, 

etc. These are its negative tasks. It will also undertake positive functions and tasks, such as the extension of public ownership in other fields of 

production, popularisation of culture, universalisation of education, science and learning and the building of socialist character and morality. Thus the 

Communist State has both destructive and constructive tasks, i.e., to destroy 

capitalism and construct socialism. When these tasks are completed, its historic role will end, and the foundation of the communist society will be 

laid. With this the revolutionary State of Communism will come to a close. 

The Post-Revolutionary State; the ”withering away” of the State. When the bourgeoisie is suppressed, and all traces of capitalism are wiped out, the necessity of the State comes to an end. This is the twilight  of the State. It will then, as Lenin says, ”wither away”, giving place to a free 

society of voluntary associations formed for the transaction of public 

business. This is the beginning of the new classless, Stateless, communism: society—the ultimate historic goal of Communism. Its advent will mean 

that the revolutionary period is over. ”When organizing production anew’, says Engles, ”on the basis of a free and equal association of the producers, society will banish the whole State-machine to the place which will then be 

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the most proper one for it—the museum of antiquities-side by side with the spinning-wheel and the bronze axe.” The classless, Stateless society. 

This will be the climax of communism. It will be a Stateless society, for the State has withered away. It will also be a classless society, for the classes have been abolished. It will be an anarchistic society of complete freedom of the individual, in which, as Engels puts it, mankind will emerge ”from the kingdom of necessity to the kingdom of freedom”. Economically, it will be an age of superabundance of production and one in which each individual will ”work according to his ability and get things according to his needs.” Marxist Communism, therefore, aims at the highest perfection of human individuality by creating a social structure ”in which the free and full development of every individual forms the ruling principle.” That is the reason why the Communists believe that, as Joad puts it, ”the battle they are fighting, though outwardly waged on behalf of a dispossessed class, is really the battle of the whole of mankind; and it is this conviction, embraced with the intensity born of a disinterested ideal, which generates the power of self-sacrifice and self-devotion underlying a superficially somewhat arid and doctrinaire programme.”57 Criticism of Marxism and Communism. 

Marxism and Communism have been subjected to severest criticism from the very day Marx and Engels wrote their world-famous booklet, the Communist Manifesto, and still more furiously when the first Communist State came into power in Soviet Russia under Lenin’s leadership in November, 1917, they are attacked by writers, philosophers, Statesmen, politicians and others. This criticism has become all the more severe after the World War II, when nearly a third of the world population had gone Communist and the world was divided into two Power Blocs, bitterly hostile to each other. Some of the points of criticism against Marxism and Communism are as follows: 

1.       Marxist theory of history is hopelessly one-sided. The materialist conception of history lays emphasis on the material or economic conditions which determine historical events and movements. It neglects other causes, such as political, geographical, religious, moral, intellectual, social, psychological, etc. Such sociologists as Giddings and Hobhouse criticise the economic interpretation of history as one-sided view of life and society, for other factors also influence and determine them. According to them, human life and society should be interpreted pluralistically rather than materialistically. Economic factor is undoubtedly important, but others cannot be overlooked in interpreting history. 

57 Cf. Modern Political Theory, p. 20 
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2.            The Communist theory of class struggle is not supported by history. The critics point out that to regard history as nothing but an endless series of class wars is pessimistic and over-dramatic view. Society is not necessarily organised into hostile classes, in which the poor are exploited by the rich. 

3.       Marx’s prophecy that social revolution would come in industrially advanced countries has been falsified. Socialist Revolution occurred in Russian in 1917, which was a backward agrarian country, while it did not happen in Germany, England or the U.S.A., which were highly industrialised countries. 

4.       The Communist view that the State will wither away is not correct. In communist countries of today the State has not withered away. Instead of that, it has become stronger than ever. Indeed, communist States have become authoritarian and totalitarian, controlling all aspects of human and national life. 

5.       Marx’s prediction of the growing impoverishment of the working classes in the capitalist countries has also been proved to be false. The conditions of the working classes in the capitalist countries have become better and happier than it was in Marx’s days. Moreover, instead of the parameterisation of the small capitalist, the common people now share in the profits of capitalist undertakings as shareholders in big, corporate concerns. But the Communists reply that this improvement is accompanied with the growing impoverishment of the subject peoples of the colonies and backward countries of the former empires of the European countries and America. Nevertheless, big and small capitalist countries exist side by side in the capitalist countries. 

6.       Lastly, the methods of Communism are revolutionary, 

violent, and undemocratic. Communism is a philosophy of revolution, and does not appeal to peaceful minds. The violent methods of a revolutionary continue even when the need for them has long ceased to exist. This confirms Lord Acton’s dictum: ”All power corrupts; absolute power 

corrupts absolutely” Collapse of Communist System: 

In 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev became the General Secretary of the 

Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the most powerful Communist State in the world. After his rise to power, he introduced such changes in the 

theory and practice of Communism, which have led to the collapse of 

Communism in many Communist countries of the world, except China, 

Cuba, and North Korea till 1990. These changes began with two policies at Mikhail Gorbachev, which he called glasnost (openness) and perestroika 

(restructuring). What are the causes of the collapse of Communist system7.1 

They are many, but we shall mention important ones only: 

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1.       Failure of the Communist economic theory: As we have said   above,   Marxism-Leninism aimed   at tremendous   economic development in every communist country by means of centralised planned economic system. Although the Soviet Union achieved great progress in heavy industry, but it failed to do so in the case of the consumer goods industry, with the result that there was always great shortage of food and other articles of daily needs. It caused much hardship and discontent among the common peoples in the Communist countries, especially in the Sovietdominated East European countries in comparison with the rich countries of Western Europe and USA. When Gorbachev proclaimed glasost and peresroika, the East European countries, namely East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria were the first to discard the communist system, and adopt the free market economy of the capitalist West. Not only the economic successes of the capitalist USA as against the communist Soviet Union but also the economic successes of the capitalist West Germany as against the Communist East Germany further confirmed the failure of the Communist government-controlled economic system of production  and distribution. 

2.       Communist    system    was    based    on    totalitarian dictatorship: In every communist country, all powers were concentrated in the hands of the Communist Party and its General Secretary. No opposition party was legally allowed to exist. Although the Soviet Constitution granted many basic rights but these were only on paper. In fact, no individual enjoyed any right, and freedom, such as the freedom of opinion, to form a party, or freedom of the press, or freedom of association or freedom to travel in one’s own country. With the collapse of Communism, several political parties have come into being in East European countries. Even in the Soviet Union the old monopoly of power of the CPSU (Communist Party of the Soviet Union) has been discarded and an opposition party is being set up, but the conservative elements in the Soviet government and army are trying hard to prevent the rise of a real opposition party in their country. 

3.       After its victory in the Second World War, Soviet Union dominated almost all the East European countries. But since 1989, they have again become independent, sovereign States. Thus East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria have reasserted their independence. 

4.       Several component Republics of the Soviet Union are also trying to become independent,- sovereign States, such as Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Ukraine and the three Baltic Republics of Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia. 

All these failures and changes will, sooner or later, end in the transformation of the Communist States. Some of them will remain 
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communist in name but will become capitalist and democratic States, based on capitalist economic system and on the human rights and freedoms of the individual. However, with the revival of capitalism, such capitalist troubles, as inflation or rise in prices and unemployment, will also begin in these countries.