Chapter 36 Propaganda 

Nothing will enable a citizen to understand politics, influence policies and participate in the formulation and expression of public opinion more than a proper understanding of the meanings and significance of propaganda in the modern State. A distinguishing feature of the modern State is the use, misuse and even abuse of propaganda. Propaganda is a technique of influencing public opinion. Public opinion influences the policy of the modern State, while propaganda influences the public opinion. History of Propaganda: 

Propaganda has always existed in human history. In the ages, it was conducted on person-to-person basis, by means of face-to-face talks or conversations and speeches. In modern times, however, it is conducted through the devices of high technology and the media of mass communications, such as press, radio, cinema, television and now even by the earth-girdling satellites. It is, indeed, stock-in-trade of the political parties, pressure groups and other opinion-makers and leaders as well as of the commercial publicity-men and  advertisers. 

The term ”propaganda” was first used by the Roman Catholic Church in its war of words against the revolting Protestants. It established an organisation, called Congregatio de Propaganda Fide (Congregation for Propaganda of the Faith), which was a committee of the cardinals to carry on Christian missionary work. The term acquired a derogatory sense when the British, French and American Allies in their war against Imperial Germany during the First World War, used propaganda among German troops so skilfully as to bring about the defeat of Germany. The Germans during the inter-war years, led by the Nazi Party, asserted that Germany was not defeated on the fields of battle but by the ”swindle” of the Allies propaganda. To counter such attempts, Nazi Germany set up a ministry of propaganda which was controlled by the notorious Nazi propagandist, E. Goebbels, the Propaganda Minister of the Nazi dictator, Hitler, who perfected a propaganda device, which he called ’big lie’. He claimed that the bigger the lie, the more readily the people believed it to be true. 

Before    modern    political propaganda    began, commerciai propaganda in the form of publicity and advertisement had come into use after the industrials Revolution of the early nineteenth century. Modern large scale industry- produce such an abundant quantities of goods that the 
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can be sold only by means of large scale commercial publicity and advertisement, on which billions of dollars are spent every year in the industrialised countries of the world, e.g. USA, Japan and Western Europe. But here we are concerned only with the political propaganda, carried on by governments, political parties, leaders and others. The immense influence of propaganda was realised, for instance, by the Soviet leaders. They use it in -two senses as ”propaganda” and ”agitator .1”. By propaganda they mean the ”reasoned use of historical and scientific arguments to indoctrinate the educated and the intelligent”, while ”agitation” means the use of emotional slogans, parables and half truths to influence the uneducated and the unreasonable. Accordingly, a standard Soviet manual is issued for teachers of sciences, entitled ”For the Propagandist of Political Economy”-and a pocket-sized booklet called Bloknot Agitora (The Agitator’s Notebook) is issued weekly to be used in speeches and conversation among the masses. 

In present times, the technological revolution and the information explosion have made propaganda the most powerful political weapon of almost all the States and government, political parties, pressure groups, 

commercial enterprises and corporations, used both internally within the country and externally against other countries, governments, parties and groups. For this reason a ministry or department is established in many countries which is variously called ministry of propaganda, information, 

public relations or of public enlightenment. Definition: 

Propaganda may be defined as a deliberate attempt to influence or 

manipulate other peoples beliefs, attitudes or actions by means of words, 

igestures, flags, images, music, monuments, and such other signs and symbols. It is also understood in a negative sense. It refers to the ’Man a g em en t of mass communications, the manipulation of facts, the one- 

Isideci presentation or communication of information and the use of non- 

ational appeals. The propagandist has a specified goal or set of goals. To 

’neve these he deliberately presents a selection of facts, arguments, and 

rplanation in such ways which he thinks will have the most effects. To 

Kimise effects, he may omit relevant facts and withhold necessary 

’formation and thus mislead the people whose attention he wants to divert 

everything but towards his own propaganda. Whether taken to be good 

bad, propaganda appeals to emotions rather than to reason. It distorts 

cts in order to deceive people. It always aims at inciting the people who 

the target of the propaganda are technically called audiences. 

In modern times propaganda has become the chief factor in the 

ess of manufacturing public opinion. It is defined as ”the spreading of 

which we want people to believe, whether such ideas are true or not.” 

t is an effort to make a ’public opinion favourable to a particular party or 

rest. It is an instrument of social control by forming opinion or ideas. It 
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is the utilisation of words, objects or persons in an attempt to influence or control the opinion and actions of the individuals and groups. Propaganda is the psychological weapon in the hands of the political power (and if it is a commercial publicity the commercial interest or organisation). Propaganda and Education. 

Propaganda and education should be dearly distinguished, for they are likely to be confused. The aim of the educator is to convey facts and opinions of all sides in order to enlighten the learners. He seek to enable them to think and perceive critically and then to make up their own minds on the particular issue. He presents all sides on an issue and leaves the learners to arrive freely at their own conclusions and opinions. The propagandist, on the contrary, conveys facts and opinions in such a way as to help the audience make up its mind. His aim is to teach the audience not how to think but what to think. Nevertheless, as both propaganda and education are forms of communication, it may not be easy fo distinguish what is controversial and what is self-evident and true. Indeed, it is sometimes said that one man’s ”propaganda” may be another man’s ”education”, and vice versa. For instance, Pakistani people regard ”Muslim Period” of -Indian History as a fact, but the Bharati people are taught to regard it as controversial; and they have distorted it altogether. In other words, what is history to the Bharatis appears as propaganda to the Pakistanis, and what is history to the Pakistanis appears as propaganda to the Bharatis. Even a scientific theory can be regarded as propaganda by some people. For example, Einstein’s theory of relativity, the basis of modern physics and space research, was declared by the Nazi Germans as Jewish propaganda. The Process, Methods and Techniques of Propaganda Forms of Propaganda. 

Propaganda is chameleon-like in its forms and shapes. It is carried on in innumerable ways, such as spoken words, printed words, slogans, symbols, personal contact, mass action, etc. Its means are also as numerous as its forms. They are: person-to-person conversation, meetings, parties, press, platform, radio, cinema, television, educational institutions, and the like. 

In its simplest form, the propaganda process consists of three factors: the propagandist and his message, the strategy and techniques used,  - and the audience or the people or the groups of people who are exposed to the propaganda. The propagandist may be an individual or a group of individuals, an agency or institution with a message, interested iir; influencing the opinions, attitudes and behaviour of the people exposed to ’ the propaganda. The strategy and techniques are the methods and means  to achieve the aims and goals of propaganda. The people or groups exposed to propaganda may be the people in general or the electorate in the country in 
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the case of internal propaganda, and the groups and peoples who are the targets of a foreign propaganda. In this chapter, we shall be mainly; though not exclusively, concerned with the internal forms and process of propaganda. How is propaganda undertaken? 

A successful propaganda campaign, like a military campaign, has its strategy or goals and its tactics and techniques. Strategy: 

Strategy is concerned with the overall campaign and its objectives or goals. In politics, it means two things. Firstly, it refers to the aims and,, policies of a political party, which are generally embodied in the party manifesto or party platform. Secondly, it refers to particular groups of people in the society to which the party appeals to gain support or the people in a foreign country to which the propagandist targets his propaganda. In the internal propaganda, the target group are the uncommitted voters, called ”floating voters”, whose votes would decide the election in the favour of the party which wins their votes by its propaganda campaign. In the external propaganda the aim is to so influence the other people as to incite them against their own government or leaders.       , 

Tactics; 

Tactics consist of the various methods and procedures which the party or the propagandist uses to accomplish the  aims of the propaganda, It is the art of utilising all available forces to the best maximum advantage within the limits set by strategy. For this reason the political campaigner, or the propaganda, has to so devise his propaganda techniques as to win support for his party or to influence the target-people according to his purpose. As a tactician he has to decide which of a number of courses will best help him succeed in his task. In more concrete terms, it means that he Is to decide beforehand upon the timing of the campaign, the extent of polemics in the campaign, the choice of the medium of communication and the method of presenting information. 

The political campaigner and the foreign propagandist have to decide in advance which forms of propaganda they would employ and what 

lechniques they would adopt in their propaganda campaign. Its Techniques. 

Like its forms and means, propaganda is conducted by various 

lamethods and techniques. The most common of them are: (i) publicity or the 

’publication of a point of view by an official body or person, or by official Statements, (ii) Censorship. It is the opposite of publicity, because it seeks 

withhold news or information from the public. If publicity is an act of 

rimunication, censorship is that of omission. But one supplements the 

It is, indeed, impossible to make propaganda successful without 
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censorship. In every propaganda campaign, therefore, not only much is told to the people but much is also not communicated or revealed to them. They are shown only one side of the picture-the bright side, if the aim is to elicit their support for a cause or interest, or the dark side, if the aim is to make them dislike and oppose something. Propaganda is always one-sided presentation of facts, news or information, (iii) Indoctrination. It means to -present facts or impart knowledge about something, whether policy, or philosophy or belief, in a persistent and systematic manner before such persons who are incapable of critical resistance due to immature age, inexperience or lack of education. Indoctrination is most successful in the case of children and youth, for they are incapable of critical resistance or rejection due to their mental immaturity and inexperience. But they are at the same time very receptive of it because of their impressionable age, their credulity, imitation and suggestibility. Much can be poured into an empty head as it is an empty pot. (iv) Education is also a method of propaganda. Only it is more rational, unbiased, and less one-sided Principles of propaganda. 

The techniques and methods of propaganda are based on these principles: viz., simplicity, repetition and credibility. Firstly, all propaganda must be simple, for the level of understanding of the people is very low and their time and interest in the subject-matter may be very limited. Secondly. it must be repeated over and over again. Effective propaganda must be limited to a very few points which should be repeated again and again in various forms and means, such as those of the printed and spoken words. symbols and slogans, the public meetings and private conversations, the radio and the cinema or the television and the press. ’Knowledge is the fruit of repetition’, said an Arab thinker in the middle Ages. It is still more true of propaganda. Public mind is proverbially short, but by constantly harping on 

an issue the people can be made to feel intensely and act as required. Lastl:, 

propaganda must rely upon the credulity of human mind. All individuals arid 

impressionable, imitative, suggestible and credulous. Every individual is nal 

only born as a child but remains childlike throughout his or her lik.1 

Propaganda relies for its success on men’s ignorance of the future, inability] 

to grasp the present or to remember what happened in the past. A 

readily and easily understands a thing if it is told or shown in a dramatic 

impressive manner and on a magnified scale. That is why atrocity stc 

big lies, glittering generalities and emotional appeals and excitations ha 

great influence and effect on the masses of the people. The bigger, 

better” is an essential principle of propaganda, for anything told 

exaggerated terms is easily believed by the people. An advertisement in I 

and bold letters or an atrocity story told in blood-curdling words and 1 

horrifying adjectives is very effective. 
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Propaganda device. 

Many devices used by the propagandist are based on the principles mentioned above. We enumerate here the most important of them: (i) The name-calling device. The propagandist first arouses the hatred and fears of the people by describing the supposed or real evils and unfavourable qualities in those groups, States, races, individuals or issues which he wants to condemn and thus appeals to the people’s fears, hatreds and prejudices by this name-calling or mud-slinging method, (ii) The glittering generalities. On the other hand, the propagandist aims at winning love, respect and loyalty to his own cause, State, group or race by describing us qualities and advantages in such glittering and glowing words and adjectives as to arouse the people’s emotions of love, generosity and brotherhood. For instance, he will often use such words and terms for his own party, cause or virtues, Christian civilisation or the superiority of the white race, ”white man’s burden” or civilising mission, (iii) The card-stacking device. The propagandist knows that some persons are critical of what he says in praise of his party or State and in condemnation of his opponents or their cause. He seeks to confuse such critical people by the device of stacking such facts as would evade the issue, while he would resort to falsehood, censorship, omitting and distorting facts, raising side-issues or new issues, and by under-emphasis or over-emphasis. Thus he confuses those who try to find out facts and know the real situation, (iv) The bandwagon device. Here the propagandist tries to tell the people that ”everybody is doing it” and thus suggests to every individual that he should also do what others are doing. Imitative instincts of man are usually strong enough to make him conform to the common practice and example of other, (v) The plain-folk device. Here the propagandist endeavours to impress upon the people that those whom he is publicizing or praising are not uncommon or strange person but are just as plain as the common run of humanity. Thus he seeks to create confidence and we-feeling for the ”great man” in the hearts of the common people (vi) The transfer device. Here the propagandist wins the confidence of the people by referring to some prominent, popular or respected person, fashion or movement. He endeavours to transfer the prestige or sanction of the person or thing to in his own programme or party or issue For instance, if he wants to sell a kind of soap, he will say that such and such film-star also uses it; if he wants the people to accept the policy of a political leader, he will say that it was also the policy of a political leader, he will say that it was also the policy of the founder of the State who, of course, is much honoured by the people, (vii) The testimonial device is frequently used by the commercial propagandists who quote a widely-known person as saying that he uses a specific product, e.g., cigarettes or cosmetics. For example, film-stars are usually shown using a particular brand of soap or shoes etc. (viii) Righteousness. The trick of showing things in such a way that all 
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’right-thinking’ people should support their cause without further questioning (ix) Transfer. The trick of identifying causes with respectable symbols or institutions (culture, communal harmony and peace)  to mask his real motives of war. (x) Selection. The trick of using selected  facts which though true may together create a totally false impression, (xi) The big lie. To resort to mass propaganda with the belief that the receptiveness of  the masses is limited and their understanding negligible, so that they readily fall a victim to the big lie.                                , Types of agents:                     , 

In certain conditions the propagandist cannot operate himself and has to rely on agents. For the success of his propaganda, he has to employ innocent-looking agents or ”front” organisations, while he himself remains behind the scene of his operations. For this purpose, he should choose such agents who are acceptable or credible to the audience than he would be. The use of agents is very effective in such areas where the propagandist is not familiar with the language and customs of the target people or where cultural, religious and other attitudes would deny him a favourable hearing. For instance, the Hindu teachers, merchants and others became the agents of Indian propaganda in eastern wing of Pakistan at the behest of India In 1971. The same role was played by the • Hindu Tamils was in Sri Lanka, and thus they enabled India to enslave that island State. The same role is played by ”front men” and ”contact agents” or by ”hidden persuaders” in modern propaganda. It is important for the propagandists to remain behind the scenes of their operations and to select intermediaries, front men, Trojan horses, and ”dummy leaders”, whom the target groups or people are more likely to listen or appreciate. Similarly, paying a native news commentator or lecturer in a foreign radio or television station or furnishing propaganda music to the foreign radio or television station may be more effective than one’s own broadcasts or telecasts. In this respect, the propaganda by a broadcasting station, like the BBC, is very effective, because the listeners is other countries usually believe that it is ”truthful”,. Various propaganda devices: 

The use of familiar symbols and signs by the propagandist is verb useful, especially those associated with parents, or parent substitutes such as uncles, aunts, schoolteachers, priests, political heroes, gods and goddesses,. e.g. ”the fatherland”, ”the mother country”, ”the Mother Church”, ”Bharat Mata” (Mother India’’), ”Uncle Sam” for the Americans, etc. In India, at actor, who used to play the roles of Hindu gods in the films, became se popular with the people that he was elected as the chief minister of a province in India. The leader and founder of Communist Vietnam gaa ”Uncle Ho Chi Minh” to his people. Modern propagandists use various 

devices for their propaganda purposes, such as the use of music broadcasti. ,audio and video casse.ttes, filins books, posters, handbills, etc. b 
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Khomeini’s revolution against the government of Raza Shah in 1979, the use of the cassettes, with the speeches of Khomeini and other revolutionary leaders recorded in them, played an important role. Indeed, the list of such devices is so long that it would fill many pages. They include newspapers, magazines, radio and television films, posters, speechmaking, whispering and rumour-mongering campaigns, flags, street names, monuments, commemorative coins and postage stamps, various kinds of scholarships, awards and prizes given by foreign countries, such as Fullbright or Soviet Friendship scholarship, various ”peace” awards, and prizes, the composition of novels, plays, comic  strips, poetry and music as well as such propaganda agencies as political parties, pressure groups, public relations firms, churches, temples, mosques, various propaganda organisations operating overtly or covertly, etc:, etc. In this respect, the ”reference groups” with which the individuals are familiar, or the ”social relay points” which convey or amplify a propaganda message are highly useful. Effects and importance of propaganda. 

Whether one likes it or not, propaganda has become a great force in the modern world. Good or bad, every modern State, whether a dictatorship or a democracy, is actively carrying on propaganda campaigns both within its territories and outside against other States, especially against those which it regards as its present or prospective enemies. Propaganda has indeed, become a very powerful political weapon. It has great effect on public mind. It works slowly, but if persisted in and repeated enough, it invariably succeeds in attaining the objects that it sets to itself, the causes of its success are several. Firstly, every individual is intellectually deficient in one way or another: he cannot think rationally about all things. The propagandist offers him ready-made answers or solutions to many about which he knows nothing or understands little: either he has no knowledge and experience or interest in it or it is very complicated. Secondly, every person has bodily limitations that he cannot be everywhere and thus have first-hand information about every event or fact. lie has, therefore, necessarily to depend upon others to supply information about it. But others may not be interested in providing him with true facts of the case due to their own party, class or political interests and considerations. Yet, in spite of hire mental, intellectual or physical limitations, every individual is eager to know something about everything, especially about an event or occurrence. The propagandist has, in such circumstances, a great scope for plying his trade. So great is the effect and influence of propaganda that it fias now become ci great force in maintaining the unity, strength and 

stability of the modern State. Hence propaganda ministries and publicity or 

public relations departments have become essential parts of the present-day governmental structure. It must, however, be said that Propaganda is not 

ssarily or always an evil. We may use it to disperse many false notions. 
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It is a very good method of educating the ’people. In any case, the fact is that it is ultimately the good and the truthful that ultimately wins. You can befool all the people’ for some time, or befool some people all the time, but you cannot befool all the people all the time. In the along run, victory lies with truth, i.e., truthful propaganda only. Causes of the success of propaganda: 

The factors, which lead to the success of propaganda, are as follows: 

1.       Crisis and war situation: In times of crisis or war people are so much perturbed that they become victims to propaganda easily. Rumours become very effective in such situations. During such emergencies propagandists preaching extreme political opinions tend to command more public support than under more settled conditions. In a peaceful society where the people are economically satisfied, views cannot be so quickly changed by propaganda appeals. 

2.         Winning side: If a party has known large majority in an area, its appeals at the election time may be more effective than those of other parties. The same is true of an army reputed to be victorious. Nothing succeeds like success. It is true in war as also in election campaigns. 

3.        Existence of censorship: An autocratic government arl 

dictatorship imposes various kinds of restrictions on freedom of expressia 

of opinion by such methods as censorship on the newspapers, press 

publication. It thus enjoys monopoly of propaganda. The same is true of i 

strong political party. Then the campaigns of such a party are likely to 1 more effective than if its messages were liable to be challenged by riv 

parties. 

4.      Marginal issues: The issues, which are of marginal of critical importance to the people, are readily successful, for they 

have little or no effect on the opinions of the people one way or the 

Similarly, if the views or programmes of rival leaders or parties are more I 

less similar, effective propaganda by one leader or party will tip the against the other. 

5.       High degree of accuracy: When messages have a 

degree of accuracy, they will be more acceptable to the people than 

which are based on a complete falsification of the existing State of affairs.’ 

6.         The appeal of specific groups: Some sections of 

people are highly suggestible to high or extreme political views than 

sections, because of their age, sex, social status, class, religion or 

These include the young, the poor, the minority groups and those of I 

status. 

Measurement of propaganda effects: 

Modern world is   seething   with   rival   propaganda counterpropaganda campaigns. It is, therefore, sometimes difficult to 
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I 

out what is true and what is not. Nevertheless, various methods can b applied to find out the effects of a particular propaganda campaign. The are briefly as under: 

1.       Content analysis: Content analysis means to study thc contents of a propaganda campaign. For instance, the number of column inches of printed space or  seconds and minutes of radio or television time that propaganda occupied can be tabulated, thus the trend or purpose of propaganda assessed. The symbol and themes it contained can be categorised in terms of expressed or implied demands for action of various types. 

2.       Intensive interviews: Selected individuals among the audience or the target people can be intensively interviewed by specially trained interviewers. If this is not possible, as it is often the case with people under a dictator or an autocratic ruler, informed persons can be interviewed who have either personal experience of such governments or have special interest in them, such as refugees, expellees, exiles, or scholars who have specially studied conditions in such a State. 

3.       Extensive observations: A propaganda campaign can be extensively observed by specially trained people. Such persons are called participant observers, that is, those who directly participate in the activities of party or movement and thereby can personally observe the effects of its propaganda. Moreover, audience’s size and composition of audiences on such campaigns can   be indirectly observed. Where printed or telecommunication, media are used, their readership or listenership figures can also be obtained. If public meeting or demonstrations are involved, there may be observers’ reports, such as those of the newspaper reporters, etc. 

4.       Experiments and panel interviews: Lastly, experiments on the reputed behaviour of the audiences can be conducted by comparing with similar or matched groups, which may be exposed to the same kind of propaganda and their reactions noted. However, such experiments may suffer from some drawbacks. The matched group may not be representative of the audiences. Moreover, exact conditions confronting the audience may not be reproducible. But if these drawbacks are kept in mind, experiments can give some accurate results. Anyway, these defects can be overcome by panel interviews. The panel interviews are conducted with small matched groups who are closely and intensively or repeatedly interviewed. Even then it should be remembered that the effects of a propaganda campaign cannot be accurately measured but only estimated. But even fairly accurate estimation can go far in understanding the effects of a propaganda campaign.